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| Methods of teaching Ways of introducing new sounds. Pronunciation in our country is taught according to the principle of approximation, that is: phonetic material for secondary school pupils is limited. Only the sounds which do not have meaning are limited. Long vowel position. a certain degrees of the quality of some sounds is admitted. Aspects of pronunciation: Individual sounds (vowels & consonants); Word stress (what the word stress is; stress is usually on the 3rd syllable from the end). Sounds in connected speech. Some sounds undergo some changes in connected speech: Weak forms of the words; Some sounds are not pronounced (elision); Appearance of linking sounds (intrusive sounds); When words are linked, the sounds may change (assimilation). Rhythm and stress in the utterance. English is a stress-timed language. The content words usually carry the stress. But sometimes the stress may be on non-content words in order to emphasize them. Intonation. Intonation is a pattern of fall and rise of the voice in the most meaningful aspects. English: high pitch, Russian: neutral pitch. Ways of introducing new sounds: In the process of teaching pronunciation we divide phonemes into 3 groups: The phonemes which are similar to the phonemes of the mother tongue (m, b, n, etc.). Practice – imitation is speech patterns. Phonemes which only seem similar but have peculiar distinctive features (td, e (in the word curtain), etc.). These sounds are most difficult and we need a variety of ways of introducing such sounds: imitation, description of articulation, compare the sound either with similar sounds in the target language or in the mother tongue), producing these sounds in the flow of speech. Phonemes which are specific in the foreign language (s, z, w, all the diphthongs). Steps of introducing the sounds: The teacher presents new sounds in the flow of speech. The teacher pronounces the words with these sounds and then shows the sounds in isolation. The teacher explains the pronunciation of the sounds. The teacher pronounces the word and the students pronounce it after him in whisper (tuning). The teacher gives the model. The teacher pronounces a word, the students repeat it, first in chorus, then – individually. The students pronounce word, word combinations and phrases with the target sound. | Exercises for practicing pronunciation. Pronunciation exercises There exist two groups of exercises for practicing pronunciation. The first group is based on recognition (we recognize the sounds, stress, rhythm and intonation). The second group includes exercises which are based on production (the students should practice to produce sounds, words, sentences, dialogues, etc.) Both these groups can be done with or without graphical support. Examples: Group 1 (students just listen) Listen and recognize the sound, put up your hands when you hear it (read a word and look at students). Listen and count the number of sounds in a phrase. Listen to the pairs of words and identify whether the sounds in both words are similar. Listen to the sentences and put up your hands when you hear a rise or a fall of intonation. Listen to the sentences and count pauses between the words. Listen to the sentences and count stressed words. + Graphical support: Listen to the words and underline those which were pronounced by the teacher. Underline the stressed words. Indicate the pauses with vertical lines. Underline the words where teacher’s voice goes up. Group 2 (based on two principles: similarity and opposition) Similarity: Listen and repeat Memory chains Just chants (repetition) Verses Tongue-twisters
| Teaching grammar. Approaches to teaching grammar. A role of grammar in teaching foreign languages is important, because it presents the system of a language. It helps learners to understand language patterns which present regulations of foreign language. Language is often seen not only as a system of functions which play the important role in communication. Grammar is indispensible part of any language aspect. Grammar sub-skills are subdivided into two groups: Reproductive grammar sub-skills which take part in speaking and writing; They mean correct automatic communicative usage of grammar items in oral (while speaking) and written speech. There exist some steps in developing grammar sub-skills while speaking: to select grammar item in accordance with communicative aim; to form phrase in accordance with the communicative function; to control the appropriacy of the structure with the communicative intention and situation. Grammar sub-skills of writing include all these steps, but we also need some graphical and spelling sub-skills. Receptive grammar sub-skills which take part listening and reading. They are automatic actions in recognizing and understanding the information in terms of phonological forms and synthetic structures, that means the grammatical information in a written text while reading, or in an oral text while listening. Some reasons for selection: It is impossible to learn all grammatical items within the course of study of a secondary school. It is not good for mastering grammatical items if we give large amounts of material. Principles of selection of grammatical items for active usage: -frequency of usage in oral speech; -the ability of the item to be used as a pattern; -grammar synonyms are excluded; Principles of selection for passive usage: -frequency of usage in literary style; -the ability of the item to combine different meanings and functions.
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| Ways of presenting and exploring grammar. Stages in the process of teaching grammar (3P): Presentation; Practice; Production. For teaching grammar we use the presentation of new grammar items in an appropriate situation. Practice of formation of grammar sub-skills by automatic usage in oral speech. Production deals with integration of grammar sub-skills with all the skills. The aim of the first stage is to create the base in the process of presenting new grammar items in oral or written form. It is important to show the function of a new grammar item, explain the meaning and the ways of formation. Then it is time for tentative use of a newly produceв item. The way of presentation may be formed differently. There are two main approaches of presentation of new grammar items: Inductive. It deals with practical explanations of new grammar item, when the teacher presents a new grammar item in lots of examples and asks the students to perform some analogical exercises with the same items. Then the teacher deduces the rule from the students. + (advantages): it makes students think, it stimulates their thinking; students compare the given examples with their experience. This approach is for low-level students. -disadvantages): not all the students can guess the meaning; it is time-consuming approach. Deductive (theoretico-practical approach). Starts with the explanation of grammar item and gives some illustrative patterns. +: it creates conditions for more exact understanding of a grammar item by all the learners; it can help to overcome language interference; it is time-saving approach (the number of examples is restricted). -: the learners are not motivated to understand the rule and they can easily forget it; have nothing to do with their life experience. Very often for grammar presentation we use visuals like real objects, grammar charts, instructions and algorithms. But all these are more often use for passive grammar item.
| Grammar practice activities. Practice: the aim of this stage is to practice newly introduced item by way of constant use in monotype situation and then in various situations. At this stage we use a combination of all types of drills and meaningful exercises which provide situation similar to real life. Different exercises: Imitative exercises. They are the easiest ones and are based on situation, several sentences or patterns. These exercises are very important, because the students should pronounce grammar items in the flow of speech. Drilling exercises. The easiest type is substitution table. It is very important, because it establishes the content. Transformation exercises. The aim is to divide items into constituent parts and then transform the structure into a new form (filling the gaps, completing, extending, paraphrasing, etc.). Concept questions. They are used to check whether the students understand this item or not. Requirements: -simple and short; -meaningful; -should lead students to understanding; -numerous and varied; -spread all over the class. Translation exercises. +: they can help to overcome language interferences, because there is a contrast of grammar forms in two languages; they provide an opportunity to focus only on the form, because the context is provided; they may be used in a specific form. -: there are many difficulties with these exercises for beginners, because students should think about meaning, spelling, etc.; these exercises break English-speaking situation during the lesson. If we use this type of exercises, we should follow the requirements: The amount of sentences should be restricted; the number of sentences depends on the level of students. The exercises should be built like a substitutional table. The teacher should give a comparative analysis of grammar forms in two languages. There should be sentences like those given for translation in the texts or in the other exercises, so that the students may use them as keys and check their translation. Exercises in combining, where different grammar items are combined in order to express ideas, attitudes, opinions. It is important to provide a situation. The situation may have visual support or verbal explanations (key words, speech patterns). The amount of support should depend on the level of students and their capacity. During the third stage which deals with production, the students should use grammar sub-skills in different skills starting with oral speech and going to written speech.
| Ways of presenting vocabulary. Without words we can’t express any ideas or our attitudes. If the grammar is a trunk and branches of language, the vocabulary is the leaves of language. It is impossible to make speech meaningful without appropriate vocabulary. Before planning the lesson, teacher should think about the vocabulary: Acquisition of vocabulary is not a linear, but a branching process. Words are not learned as mechanical pockets but in associations. Every person has his/her own lexicon which is taught and memorized in accordance with keys and associations. Therefore the process of teaching vocabulary is intensively person process and the teacher should take into consideration students’ age, life experience, linguistic competence, needs and interests. This is a social process because we use words in communication interchanging and sharing them with others. It is only an effortful, but is also experiential, hands-on process too. Vocabulary can be taught differently and it can be either boring or exciting, but everything depends on what you make of it. As our dominant, learning theory is cognitive, take it as a basic idea of vocabulary teaching. It is important to clearly determine the term vocabulary, or a lexical item. A lexical item means: Words. Word-combinations (they can be subdivided into collocations and fixed expressions which can be idioms). When we say that we know the word, we mean that we know: Meaning of the word in the context or in sense relations. We know the usage of the word (its usage in collocations, in metaphors and idioms). Word information (parts of speech, spelling and pronunciation). Word grammar. The first stage is to present a new vocabulary item and convey the meaning the meaning of this item. The second stage involves checking understanding and tentative use of newly introduced items. The usage of a new vocabulary in communicative practice. The mode of presentation can be different. A combination of different presentation modes is most effective. Presentation with the help of visual aids (pictures, real objects, gestures, actions). All these types belong to non-translative technique. Real synonyms and antonyms. Lexical set (the teacher names a lexical set and a new item that belongs to a set). The knowledge of prefixes and suffixes should be exploited. The most efficient way of presentation is the context. The words are embedded in sentence, so that the meaning of a new vocabulary item is quite clear. But sometimes we need translation.
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| Activities for practicing vocabulary. Practice deals with checking comprehension. A special set of exercises has been developed to test how far students have grasped the meaning of new vocabulary. The most common type is matching exercises. They deal with: Combinational ability of a word (it’s rather difficult to select a range of words which can collocate with the target item). Collocation grid. Componential analysis (which presupposes splitting words into their constituent parts (e.g. it looks like a table)); it helps to differentiate between confusing words. Filling the gaps (individual words or word combinations). Paraphrasing. “mind gap” (the teacher gives the key word and students produce the words connected with the key word). “language fork.” All exercises of the second stage are responding for sub-skill form through understanding, selecting, combining words of the target language. The third stage is responsible for deepening the students’ knowledge of vocabulary through active use and creative problem solving activities. The word in vocabulary is connected with a work on 4 basic skills. Different types of problem-solving activities (creating a dialogue, writing a story, describing a picture, explaining the situation) involve the knowledge of vocabulary. All these activities are more effective if they are challenging and funny and involve students’ interests and experience in completing the task. -value clarification (students are supposed to range words in order of preferences). -reading passage. If the aim of the lesson is to develop speaking and listening skills, we use oral material and the students should be able to use the vocabulary in their own speech and to understand it in the speech of their partner. Prediction ability may help students to feel confident while listening to a native speaker. Students can be taught prediction trough listening and reading (the teacher gives the title of the topic the students come up with the key vocabulary the students listen to the text students analyze the prediction).
| Teaching listening. Stages in teaching listening. Listening is an active skill, because we should be active while listening. It can be: -formal/informal; -face-to-face/via channel; -one-sided/multisided. Listening involves lots of elements: Linguistic knowledge, which includes comprehension of sounds, stress, information, grammar, lexical styles. Cognition includes memory (long-term (storing) memory and short-term (working) memory). Coding. Deciphering. Prediction. The ability to contextualize. Understanding of chunks – comprehensible units of input which are held in working memory (it can keep 7 chunks). Paralinguistic features/gestures, body language, eye contact, which can either help or distract. Environment. Music. Personal motivation. The process divides into the following stages: -pre-listening; -while listening; -post-listening. Purpose of the 1st stage is to activate students’ excitement to knowledge and personal experience and to provide the purpose of listening (predict the context and eliminate the stress). The activity of the pre-listening stage serve as sign costs: guiding students to meaning. The second, while-listening stage, helps learners to develop the skill of getting meaning from spoken language. Different activities may focus on various aspects of the skills (listening for the gist/listening for specific information, coping with distorted messaged, with mumblings). The activity of this stage helps students to focus on key items. During the third stage, the activities of post-listening stage are to embrace all the work related to a listening text. It has 2 purposes: -serves to check how well students understood the text and to reveal reasons why some of them failed to understand or missed the part of information; -it has to stimulate students to use the information they caught in other activities.
| Difficulties in teaching listening and the ways to overcome them. Some of the problems are related to the language and they are categorized as linguistic properties. They may occur on different levels: 1) Phonetic. Here there may be misunderstanding due to mixing similar sounds, due to elision and reduction, misunderstanding of word combinations due to their strange linkage or unfamiliar clusters, misunderstanding of the whole utterance due to rhythm and intonation. In this level we can come across confusion of shortened forms, confusion of short words with full words. 2) Grammatic level. Contains a large amount of analytic verbs. Grammatical homonymy – word in different function. 3) Lexical level. 3.1 Recognition of homophones. 3.2 Paronyms (nearly the same) 3.3 Opposites. 3.4. Recognition of words used in a figurative meaning. 3.5. Large amount of structural words (it, there, get) 3.6. Frequent of use of non-specific vocabulary (words with general meaning ‘one’ ). 3.7. Usage of words in different level of formality (e.g. hubby = husband, nana = fool, etc.) 3.8. Lots of fillers which are used to fill in the pauses (well, so, hmm, etc.) 3.9. Lots of elements of redundancy: repetitions, rephrasing, false starts. 3.10. Frequent confusion of numerals. 3.11. Lack of confidence. 3.12. Lack of control over the spread of the utterance. 3.13. Inability to get things repeated. 3.14. Poor understanding of speaker’s intention; 3.15. Lack of background knowledge about the topic, sometimes absence of relevant socio-cultural knowledge. 3.16. Inability to focus on key information, because too much attention is paid to every word loose a gist. 3.17. External noise. ~overloaded memory; ~tired person. In order to overcome the problems, the teacher should prepare learners in a proper way, giving them some support: -visuals; -listen several times (max. 3 times). The teacher should make pauses between parts of the text: it helps students to understand it and to memorize the information. The speed should be normal, natural.
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| Activities for developing listening skills. Pre-listening activities: -reading a text is much relevant to this type. -discussing the topic. -discussing pictures related to the topic. -doing some exercises which contain vocabulary and grammar included in the text. -predict the content from the title or from the list of words. -making lists of things the students already know about the topic. -making lists of things they want to know about it. -pre-listening questions which focus students’ attention (not more than 3) on the key information. All the activities from this stage should integrate different skills (reading, speaking). While listening stage: -pictures for identifying. -putting pictures in order. -coloring the pictures. -completing the picture. -drawing the picture. -listen and make a model. -taking notes. -following a route. -labeling the scheme, picture. -making lists of facts, ideas. -completing the grid. -spotting the mistakes (content mistakes). -text completion. -gap filling. Post-listening stage: -true/false exercises focus on global understanding. -multiple choice, focusing of details. -matching exercises. -gap-filling, completing exercises. -extending the listening. -matching reading and listening texts. -making comparison and contrast with something known. -summarizing. -problem-solving and decision-making activities. -identifying the relations between the speakers. -role-playing simulations, dictations, writing composition. -interviewing each other.
| Real-life reading strategies (skimming, scanning, intensive, extensive reading). "By reading I mean informative reading.” Reading comprehension means understanding a written text by means of extracting the required information from it as efficient as possible. There are 4 ways of reading: Extensive reading (ознакомительное чтение). Reading longer texts, usually for pleasure, it’s fluency activity, which involves global understanding of the text. It’s necessary to read the whole text with the speed of 150 words per minute. As a result, the learner should get at least 70% of the information. It is used all through the course of study. Intensive reading (изучающее чтение). This is reading of shorter texts in order to extract specific information. It’s necessary to read the whole text with the speed which is not less than 60 words a minute. It is more an accuracy activity involving reading for details. It is used at intermediate and advanced level, where it may have some features of analysis. As a result, the students should retract 100% of the information and be ready to use this information in other activities. Skimming (просмотровое чтение). It means quickly running one’s eyes over the text in order to get the gist of it. It’s not necessary to read the whole text, but the title, subtitle, some highlighted words or the first and the last passage. As a result, the students should know what the text is about. The speed is about 1,5 pages per minute. It’s used in the intermediate and advanced level. Scanning. It’s also a quick running one’s eyes through the text in order to find a particular piece of information. The reader knows that this information is in the text. It can be used as a part of other reading strategy. It is used in intermediate and advanced levels. Teacher may also use it for home reading.
| Stages in teaching reading at school (aims and procedures). Stages of teaching reading. Pre-reading. It’s devoted to giving the reason why they read it and activate knowledge and experience. For example, the teacher pre-teach only key words that carry the information about this text. Teacher should give contextualized examples. Ex. 2. Asking questions related to the topic, organizing a discussion short summary of the text with gaps predict the content from title, words. Students make lists of ideas they want to know from this text. Guiding questions (not more than 3). While-reading stage. The aim is to practice different reading strategies. Exercises from this stage help students to keep in mind the logical order of the text. Filling in the grid. Information transfer. It helps the students to organize the information in a clear and logical way. This grid can be used in the next stage for retelling, summarizing, etc. (ordering the passages, matching passages with pictures, statements, completing the passages adding 1 sentence, giving name to each passage, gap-filling exercise. Post-reading stage. The main aim is to check how much information from the text the students have understood and which of them can use it in other activities. Exercises: Answer the questions. There are two types of questions: related to the text and personal response questions. There are 3 ways of eliciting personal response answers: By asking students to match what they read against their own experience. By asking students to imagine themselves in a situation related to the text, but beyond their own experience. By asking students to express their feelings, opinions, questions. The value of it is great, because everybody likes to speak about themselves, they use the language not only from the text, but everything they already know. True/false questions, focusing on global understanding. Multiple choice questions focusing on details. Matching: , , . Ordering. Completing the summary. Writing the summary. Problem solving, role playing, discussion, debates. Dictation, writing letters/essay compositions. Students should get as much information as possible and use it practically |
| Stages in teaching reading at school (aims and procedures). Stages of teaching reading. Pre-reading. It’s devoted to giving the reason why they read it and activate knowledge and experience. For example, the teacher pre-teach only key words that carry the information about this text. Teacher should give contextualized examples. Ex. 2. Asking questions related to the topic, organizing a discussion short summary of the text with gaps predict the content from title, words. Students make lists of ideas they want to know from this text. Guiding questions (not more than 3). While-reading stage. The aim is to practice different reading strategies. Exercises from this stage help students to keep in mind the logical order of the text. Filling in the grid. Information transfer. It helps the students to organize the information in a clear and logical way. This grid can be used in the next stage for retelling, summarizing, etc. (ordering the passages, matching passages with pictures, statements, completing the passages adding 1 sentence, giving name to each passage, gap-filling exercise. Post-reading stage. The main aim is to check how much information from the text the students have understood and which of them can use it in other activities. Exercises: Answer the questions. There are two types of questions: related to the text and personal response questions. There are 3 ways of eliciting personal response answers: By asking students to match what they read against their own experience. By asking students to imagine themselves in a situation related to the text, but beyond their own experience. By asking students to express their feelings, opinions, questions. The value of it is great, because everybody likes to speak about themselves, they use the language not only from the text, but everything they already know. True/false questions, focusing on global understanding. Multiple choice questions focusing on details. Matching: , , . Ordering. Completing the summary. Writing the summary. Problem solving, role playing, discussion, debates. Dictation, writing letters/essay compositions. Students should get as much information as possible and use it practically.
| Different approaches to teaching dialogue speech. Speaking means the ability to express one’s ideas, opinions orally in order to realize speaker’s needs and intentions. Speaking is realized in two forms: dialogical and monological. In real life dialogue prevails, so in the process of teaching speaking dialogue dominates. Dialogue There are two main approaches to teaching dialogue: deductive and inductive (don’t confuse with grammar teaching approaches !!!) Both approaches are based on pattern dialogue, the process of teaching involves 3 stages: Similar for both approaches. During it the teacher introduces the pattern dialogue orally. Then the students may repeat this dialogue in roles, change some cues, add some information, so in this way they practice the pattern dialogue. According to the deductive approach, students are supposed to learn the whole pattern dialogue by heart as it was presented. According to the inductive approach, students learn only some parts of the dialogue or some important set phrases which are widely used in dialogical speech. 3) Similar for both approaches. Students are supposed to create their own dialogues. Deductive – for beginners, inductive – intermediate, advanced level (inductive approach is more effective). Situation It is a set of conditions, verbal and non-verbal, which is necessary and enough to perform a speech act. Situations can be classified as standard and non-standard (variable), they can be real situations or the ones created for teaching purposes (teaching situations), they can be speech (communicative) and non-speech (non-communicative), descriptive or problematic. The situation can be created verbally, visually and verbal-visually. For elementary-level students the teacher creates situation and provides lots of supports (pictures, cards, schemes, lists of vocabulary and speech patterns). For more advanced learners, the situation should contain a problem, which is appropriate for this age group and is based on their knowledge and experience. If a situation is closer to real life, it is more communicative and reflects the students’ knowledge and experience.
| Types of speaking activities. Types of activities for developing speaking skills All the activities can be divided into 3 groups: -control activities (repetition practice, set sentences, phrases, prompted by pictures or word use. The aim of these activities is to improve accurate use of vocabulary, structures, grammar and pronunciation, and to foster confidence in their knowledge and abilities. In these activities all the material is provided by the teacher or the textbook). -guided or semi-controlled, semi-communicative activities (here the teacher may give incomplete sentences, phrases or dialogues, and the students should complete these using their own ideas. The material of these activities is based on the language which has already been taught, the material is partially presented by the teacher, the rest is supplied by the learners). -communicative activities (they are usually designed to give either creative practice opportunities for predicted language items, or for general fluency practice where specific language items are less relevant).
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| Problems in teaching speaking and the ways to tackle them. In order to provide the reason for speaking, the teacher should create a gap between the speakers. It can be information gap or opinion gap. In order to fill in this gap, the students start speaking. The teacher should create favorable situation for speaking, comfortable atmosphere, where the students are not afraid and they even enjoy this communication with the teacher and their mates. The teacher should give enough controlled and guided practice (not only for beginners, but also for advanced students). The teacher should make the situation more communicative and motivate the students’ interest and usage of personal experience. Plan the speaking activities very carefully, thinking about the task, the instructions, the material that should be provided. Guidelines for creating communicative speaking activities: Before speaking activities. Decide on your aim, what you want to do and why. Try to predict what the students may bring to this activity and any problems they may have. Work out how long the activity will take and adjust it to the time available. Prepare the material before the lesson. Work out your instruction. The instruction should be short, clear and precise. While speaking activities. The teacher should motivate students to speak (with the help of visuals or a short lead-in talk or a newspaper headline) which are related to the topic and arouse students’ interests and experience. May remind the students of the language they may use. When setting up the activity, the teacher should be sure that all the students understood the instruction. Sometimes it is necessary to check how the students understood the instructions. The teacher should make the activity more process-based rather than product-based by encouraging rehearsal if appropriate (especially in role-plays). The teacher should monitor the activity (going round, listening, not interrupting, only provide help if necessary and noting down typical mistakes and problems the students may have during the activity). Stop the activity when the time is up, or when all the students finished doing the activity. After speaking activities. Provide feedback (analysis of the activity). First, the teacher should indicate how each person communicated, how fluent he was, how well he worked as a group (at first underline positive features). Then focus on typical mistakes, without naming who of the students made it. Individual bad mistakes should be dealt with in private. The teacher should organize a remedial work (работа на ошибками) on common mistakes, wither in the classroom or at home, giving the students recommendations of what to do in order to overcome these mistakes. The groups of exercise: interactive (information gap, etc) – these are mostly dialogues; problem-solving (ss work first individually, then – in groups); role-play, or dramatization (performing the act) – a guided activity, not fully communicative, because the material for this activity is partially provided by the teacher. simulation (ss are put in the conditions that are beyond their life-situations. discussion (all the ss discuss one and the same question, proving their points of view). debates (ss are divided into 2 groups (for and against)); all types of communicative games (where the language is used freely as a means of communication).
| Ways of teaching beginners to write. Writing is good because it involves all types of memory and it helps learners to remember better and longer the material they used in writing. We can practice and remember vocabulary and grammar if we are involved in writing. It gives students opportunity to practice any language aspect individually at home. Teaching writing has several aspects: Handwriting – correct and distinct writing of letters. Spelling – correct writing of words. Punctuation – the appropriate use of capital letters, full stops, commas, signs of interrogation and exclamation. Sentence construction – the students should be able to put the words in the correct order. Organizing text and paragraphing – the learners should be able to divide information into meaningful paragraphs and order these paragraphs logically to make the text coherent. Text cohesion – the appropriate use of linking words or phrases in order to make the text clear to the reader. Register, or style – the appropriate use of vocabulary and structures according to formal, informal or neutral style. Teaching beginner students to write: Focus on handwriting (5-10 lines) -Give combinations of letters; -Letters can be grouped according to their shape (a, c, d, g, q, d=/b, but: I, L, T, B, P, R); -Exercises on recognition (students should recognize a letter in a list). -Copy out a target letter. 2. Spelling. This stage is closely connected with teaching pronunciation, explaining the rules). -Underline words with target letter combination copy them out; -Fill in the gaps; -“Jumble letters”; -Copying (the most common) of words, sentences, phrases, texts. Simply copying or copying with some tasks (copy and change the subject with the personal pronoun, etc.). -Complete the sentence (grammar and vocabulary); -Matching questions and answers and copying them out; -Jumbled sentences (words are jumbled; put them in order); -Dictation “Auditory dictation” – the teacher dictates a text. Requirements: read the text only 3 times (1 – listen, 2 – write, 3 – listen and check). “Visual” – the teacher words, sentences or short paragraphs on the blackboard and gives the students 4-5 minutes to look at it. Then he covers it, the students write the dictation from their memory. The main idea is the individual approach. “Exclamatory dictation – the teacher asks one of the students to write a couple of sentences. Then the student should explain the spelling of the difficult words. Then the students have auditory dictation where these words are used, but in different combinations. “Running, or wall dictation” – the teacher pins the texts to the blackboard or to the wall, the students are divided into several teams, each teams runs to the blackboard, reads the first sentence and turns, dictates the sentence to his team, then the 2nd, the 3rd, etc. The team who finishes first is the winner. “Loop dictation” – it’s repeated several types without pauses (short text, one passage, 5-6 sentences). 1- reads, 2 – 5-6 key words, leave space; 3-4 – they try to fill in words. “Interactive dictation” – the teacher dictates the questions and the students write down answers. They may use their answers to ask questions, etc.
| Writing activities for intermediate and advanced learners. Writing is good because it involves all types of memory and it helps learners to remember better and longer the material they used in writing. We can practice and remember vocabulary and grammar if we are involved in writing. It gives students opportunity to practice any language aspect individually at home. Teaching writing has several aspects: Handwriting – correct and distinct writing of letters. Spelling – correct writing of words. Punctuation – the appropriate use of capital letters, full stops, commas, signs of interrogation and exclamation. Sentence construction – the students should be able to put the words in the correct order. Organizing text and paragraphing – the learners should be able to divide information into meaningful paragraphs and order these paragraphs logically to make the text coherent. Text cohesion – the appropriate use of linking words or phrases in order to make the text clear to the reader. Register, or style – the appropriate use of vocabulary and structures according to formal, informal or neutral style. Activities for intermediate and advanced learners All activities for productive skills are divided into controlled, semi-controlled: -Write an interview; -Make a plan of your future; -Note down main places of interest in city X. -Describe the picture and send this description to your pen-friend. Communicative: -Writing a letter, a story, an essay, a summary. Steps of creative writing: Introduction. The teacher introduces the topic by organizing a short leading talk or providing a newspaper article, program that should stimulate students’ ideas. And the teacher should provide the situation which requires writing. Working with ideas. The teacher organizes brainstorming and elicits the ideas which are related to the topic and writes them down asks students to develop these ideas orally. Planning. Students organize the ideas in logical order, starting with the most general ones. Drafting. Students write their first version of composition or a letter. They may use everything they want to use. Editing. They read their ideas focusing on: -the content; -they look at the text organization; -look at the language used (grammatical structures – appropriate/varied). -look at the vocabulary (whether it’s appropriate in this style). -spelling; -correct punctuation. 6. Re-writing. Students write their final version of their essay. Only after that, the creative writing can be read by “imaginary writer”.
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| Steps in developing free writing. Steps of creative writing: Introduction. The teacher introduces the topic by organizing a short leading talk or providing a newspaper article, program that should stimulate students’ ideas. And the teacher should provide the situation which requires writing. Working with ideas. The teacher organizes brainstorming and elicits the ideas which are related to the topic and writes them down asks students to develop these ideas orally. Planning. Students organize the ideas in logical order, starting with the most general ones. Drafting. Students write their first version of composition or a letter. They may use everything they want to use. Editing. They read their ideas focusing on: -the content; -they look at the text organization; -look at the language used (grammatical structures – appropriate/varied). -look at the vocabulary (whether it’s appropriate in this style). -spelling; -correct punctuation. 6. Re-writing. Students write their final version of their essay. Only after that, the creative writing can be read by “imaginary writer”.
| Giving feedback on learner's writing. For advanced learners the aim is to promote self-correction and peer correction (editing), to give positive feedback focusing on strong sides of their writing, to give encouraging comments on content, organization and language use. Correction technique: indicate only the member of mistakes without specifying them; the teacher may use reformulation technique, which is to reformulate the idea in a more natural form for a compete writer. To make it more objective, the teacher should work out a written composition profile in which the criteria of assessment should be specified. Example of a profile: The content (whether the topic is relevant; whether the ideas or events are interesting; if the ideas are developed and enough details are provided). Organization and the way of presentation (the logical sequence of ideas/events, if the appropriate transition or devices are used; if the text is coherent) The language Correct grammar (the agreement, the tense, the members are correct); Vocabulary (whether the characteristic of the word is effective, varied, appropriate); The spelling & pronunciation (if they are of acceptable accuracy); Whether the style is appropriate. The amount of correction depends on the type of the activity. If it is a grammar exercise, then the amount of correction is more than in fluency activities. And remember: mistakes are just natural steps in learning everything.
| Visual aids in presenting and practicing language. Visuals in skills development. skills (умения) (listening & reading, speaking & writing) and sub-skills (навыки) (pronunciation, intonation, lexical, grammatical, spelling, basic reading and writing skills)). Sub-skill is an automatic action which is achieved in the course of exercises. Skill consists of sub-skills + some intellectual efforts (certain intonation, certain word patterns, etc.) Classification of the teaching aids: For teacher, for learners, for both. The syllabus (everything that is important for study) – for teacher; The course book (may consist of student’s book, workbook, cassettes, teacher’s book, teacher’s guide, etc.) – for both; The resource book (grammar, phrasal verbs, collocations, etc.) – for both; Visuals (real objects, pictures, photos, flash-cards, worksheets, charts, cassette recorder, overhead projector) – for teacher. Technical and non-technical. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! The benefit of using visual aids in your presentation Visual aids should be used to reinforce your message, clarify points, and create excitement. Visual aids will help you reach your objectives by providing emphasis to what is being said. Clear pictures multiply the audience’s level of understanding of the material presented. Visual aids involve your audience and require a change from one activity to another: from hearing to seeing. When you use visual aids, their use tends to encourage gestures and movement on your part. This extra movement reinforces the control that you, the speaker, need over the presentation. The use of visual aids, then, are mutually beneficial to the audience and to you. Visual aids add impact and interest to a presentation. They enable you to appeal to more than one sense at the same time, thereby increasing the audience’s understanding and retention level. With pictures, the concepts or ideas you present are no longer simply words – but words plus images. People tend to be eye-minded, and the impacts visual aids bring to a presentation are, indeed, significant. The studies, below, reveal interesting statistics that support these findings: In many studies, experimental psychologists and educators have found that retention of information three days after a meeting or other event is six times greater when information is presented by visual and oral means than when the information is presented by the spoken word alone. Studies by educational researchers suggest that approximately 83% of human learning occurs visually, and the remaining 17% through the other senses – 11% through hearing, 3.5% through smell, 1% through taste, and 1.5% through touch. The studies suggest that three days after an event, people retain 10% of what they heard from an oral presentation, 35% from a visual presentation, and 65% from a visual and oral presentation. The use of visual aids, then, is essential to all presentations. Without them, the impact of your presentation may leave the audience shortly after the audience leaves you. By preparing a presentation with visual aids that reinforce your main ideas, you will reach your audience far more effectively, and, perhaps, continue to “touch” them long after the presentation ends. Visuals may be approached and used in many different ways to mention just a few (Gower 1995, Harmer 1993): Presenting new language (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation) Practicing new language (vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation) Introduce texts for developing receptive and productive skills (listening, reading, speaking and writing) Can serve as a base for communication Set the scene for a story or role-play Make links between language learning and learner’s world Motivating learners Building cultural awareness Create a need for new language which the teacher can then satisfy Developing learner’s creativity
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| New approaches to error correction. The basic difference is that students can correct mistakes themselves (a slip of the tongue, a slip of the pen) and ss are unable to correct errors, because they simply don’t know the correct form. Possible causes of mistakes: -carelessness; -tidiness; -lack of concentration; -when they focus more on getting a meaning than a form. Causes of errors: the ss simply don’t know the rule, the correct form, but the ss feel that smth similar may exist in the language and they try to use it. In this case the errors won’t be systematic ones. when the material has already been presented, but the ss still get it wrong and make errors. In this case the error is systematic. It means that students are suffering from negative influence of their mother tongue or poor presentation from the teacher. Types of mistakes/errors: -vocabulary; -grammar mistakes; -pronunciation mistakes; -spelling mistakes; -mistakes in style. Technique of correcting (ways of correction): -teacher correction; -peer correction; -self-correction. It is important to start with self-correction. Peer correction (the other ss correct mistakes). Advantages of peer correction: + it involves all the ss in the correction process; + it makes learners work cooperatively; + it reduces ss dependence on the teacher; + it increases the amount of ss listening to each other; + it gives better ss smth to do. BUT peer correction has to be done very carefully – at first ask who wants to help. It is important to give a student who made a mistake a chance to pronounce the correct variant. Correction techniques depend on the type of the activity the ss are involved in. In general of two activity focus on accuracy, the teacher’s control and correction should be increased. If act focuses on fluency, the teacher’s control and correction will be less. So the students should know to what extent they will be corrected and whether they’ll have marks for their performance.
| Correction techniques in productive skills. 3 main stages in process of correct speaking: 1) Students should know that smth is not accurate. The teacher should give the chance to finish the phrase, or say the word which shows that smth is wrong. The teacher should not interrupt. 2) The teach should isolate the we part of me utterance and again make a gesture or say a word. The students should know where the mistakes were made. 3) The students should know what kind of mistake he has made. Correcting writing There exist special symbols for correction student writing. The letter S means spelling mistake P – punctuation V – verb Wo – word order Ww – wrong word Arr – arrangement is wrong R/o – run on sentence that means that this sent are not divided. - new paragraph or - something is missing - teacher likes it ? – teacher does not understand For beginners the aim of correction is to encourage accuracy in writing and to raise motivation to extend the knowledge of the language, to write more and focus on what students can do all right. For advanced learners the aim is to promote self-correction and peer correction (editing), to give positive feedback focusing on strong sides of their writing, to give encouraging comments on content, organization and language use. Correction technique: indicate only the member of mistakes without specifying them; the teacher may use reformulation technique, which is to reformulate the idea in a more natural form for a compete writer.
| Ways of organizing students. Types of interaction. One of the main roles of the teacher is to organize a classroom in such a way as to receive (to achieve) better results. There exist 4 main types of interaction, which are classified according to the participants of the lesson. So, they are: -whole-class activities; -pair work; -group work; -individual work. The way students are organized during the lesson has a great influence on language-learning process. The type of interaction depends on the main goal of the lesson and the aim of the activity. In controlled activities, the teacher speaks most of the time and manages the work of the students. This is a teacher-center activity. In guided or semi-guided activities the students work in groups, in pairs or individually, because the aim of the activity is to elicit speech from the students. In communicative activities, the center is on the students, they are called student-center activities. Work in pairs Aim is to elicit personal attitude, feelings, ideas, on the basis of the material which has already been taught. WHOLE-CLASS ACTIVITIES (LOCK-STEP ACTIVITIES) All the students work on the same activity with the same rhythm. Positive features: The class has correct language from the teacher. The students have enough practice in listening and repeating the correct language produced by the teacher. The whole class works with the same dynamic, because the teacher sets the rhythm. Negative features: Some people may lose the possibility to speak up. The students do not work at their own pace, but at the one set by the teacher (for bright students – too slow, for weak students – too fast). There is too much teaching and too little learning. We use it for setting task, for phonetic and lexical warm-up, for presenting new material. We use it for pre-stage, for checking homework, for writing dictations, for controlled activities for developing speaking skills. For lower level students this type of activity prevails. PAIR WORK It has lots of advantages: Increases students’ participation. It gives chance to shy students to speak up. Students may experiment their own ideas without being afraid of making mistakes. It gives the teacher a chance to help weak students. The disadvantages: The students may use their native language while working in pairs. It may lead to discipline problems. It makes too much noise. When students work in pairs, the teacher should monitor the class, to go around listening in, taking some notes and helping, if necessary. This type of interaction is used for practicing dialogical speech, all types of questions, grammar drills (according to the substitution tables). This type of work is also very appropriate for semi-controlled activities for developing speaking skills. GROUP WORK Advantages: The students work in cooperation with each other; They learn from each other; They have their own responsibility for the result of the activity and it is shared among the participants; It helps students to fulfill the task correctly, because at least 1 of them may know how to do it; The students work at their own pace. Disadvantages: It may cause a lot of noise; The students may use their native language and speak about their personal affairs; The bright student may dominate, and weak students may be silent. Some of the students may not wish to work together within this group. There are different ways of organizing groups: -The teacher puts in one group students of different levels (bright students help weaker ones); -The teacher chooses groups according to the level of their knowledge. In this case, the amount of support should be different (more support for the weaker ones – phrases, schemes, vocabulary. For bright students just situation is given). -Groups are organized according to students’ wishes, to their personal relations (guided and communicative activities, discussion, debates, problem-solving activities, role plays, simulations and dramatizations). e.g. interpreting the pictures; debates (the class may be divided into 3 groups: for, against, the public; the public decides and puts marks); role play (2 ways: 1) the teacher gives the cards with the character and the material to the students; 2) the teacher gives only the characteristic of the character, the students use their own speaking material). INDIVIDUAL WORK Advantages: Student has his own responsibility or the activity; or the activity; The student works at his own pace and focuses on what he/she wants to achieve. Disadvantage: The teacher can’t control students’ work on the activity. This type of interaction is used for preparation stage at guided and communicative activities, post-reading, post-listening stage, grammar and vocabulary work, story completion (orally or in the written form), interpretation of the picture. The first stage of the role-play (preparing the parts), solving the problem. All types of interaction should be used while developing productive skills.
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| Lesson planning. Planning principles. There are 2 main planning principles which teacher should take into consideration VARIERY & FLEXIBILITY. Variety’s features: The number of different activities should be varied on the basis of the type of the lesson. The material which is selected should be varied and authentic. Teacher should use different types of interaction. Different skills should be used at the lessons in special sequence. Usually we start with the receptive skills and go to productive ones. The activities which are used at the lessons are more learner-centered than teacher-centered. Flexibility means the ability to change the plan in the course of the lesson it it’s necessary. Before planning teacher should focus on 3 very important points: The pupils (who they are, how many, their age, sex, whether they are difficult to control). What teacher wants to present, to practice and develop. Means: whether the teacher introduces new material or practices the material, what skills the teacher is going to involve, what material the teacher is going to provide. How teacher is going to do (what type of interaction, what sequence of skills is more appropriate, in which way the teacher wants to provide the material, the time which is devoted to each activity).
| Types of lessons. Teaching rules. 3 main types of English lessons: a combined lesson: The teacher combines the work on any language aspect with the work of any skill (12 variants of a combined lesson). integrated-skill lesson: The focus is on skill development. It’s possible to combine at least 2 skills, so we have 6 variants. This type of lesson is usually used as a final lesson when the topic has already been covered. test lesson, where communicative skills are tested.
III. Usually the lesson should have a certain shape that is: beginning may consist of phonetic or lexical warm-up or lead-in talk which bring stress to a language class, they tune students into English. The middle part depends on the object and the type of lesson. The typical sequence is ppp. The end of the lesson is usually a summary of the lesson or review of introduced material. Outlined plan Write the date and the form. The topic of the lesson. The objectives of the lesson. The material and teaching aids. The procedure (ход урока). -phonetic or lexical warm-up or ________ in talk if it’s integrated-skill lesson. -presentation of a new material if it’s a combined lesson or reading or listening if it’s integrated-skill lesson. -practice (combined lesson) or communicative activities (integrated-skill lesson). -home check-up. -writing activities or revision activities. -setting up homework (teacher should explain how to do it and show where it’s placed in the textbook). -summarizing (all the work that has been done, named who got some marks and comment on these marks). Recommendations on timing: don’t plan too much in a lesson, but have extra activities which can be used with the same purpose. tell students at the very beginning of the activities how long they will continue. warn the class 1 or 2 min before the activity is due to finish. use the last few minutes to check and summarize what the activity or the lesson has been all about. give students time to copy an important information from the board or handouts. give slower students time to answer before you ask another students. don’t wait too long. keep under control the time planned for each activity. vary the timing of relaxed and intensive material to build up a sense of rhythm and to give the lesson a shape. IV. The purpose of the plan of a lesson is to help teacher and to give him confidence, but if the activity doesn’t work or something goes wrong, teacher should be able to change the plan in the course of the lesson. In order not to hail the teacher’s job, the teacher should follow some rules: teacher should know the language he/she is teaching. Teacher should have developed skills which he wants to elicit from students. Teacher should use a variety of teaching aids which are available. Teacher should be perfect in using different techniques and stages of lesson. Teacher should have a large repertoire or activities which help to vary the plan and achieve an ideal balance of the activities. Teacher should have good classroom management skills (to maintain discipline, use different groupings).
| The roles of the teacher at a lesson. The most important roles of teacher: A manager (teacher gives instructions and organizes students’ work). A model (while presenting new material, teacher’s language should be perfect, idea). A monitor (when students work in pairs, groups or even individually, teacher goes around, noticing down some information, put the objective marks). A counselor (teacher advises how to approach the task in the best way). An informant (teacher explains new material, gives information). Facilitator – THE MOST IMPORTANT ROLE OF THE TEACHER (teacher provides material, guides students’ work, provides the situation which should be closer to life or organizes students’ work on their own. The teacher should also work on his personal development that is to refresh language and skills in order to do this, it’s advisable to take part in different seminars, training courses. And the teacher should reflect on his lessons in order to achieve better results.
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| Games in language learning. Types and value of games. Language learning is a hard work and it’s necessary to maintain students’ interest we use games & fun activities. The advantages of games: They are motivating, sustain (поддерживают) learners’ interest and make them want to take part in activities. Help to provide context in which language is used meaningfully and appropriately. Provide a repeated use of a language form in real situations, so the quality of drilling exercises changes become more interesting. Presuppose interaction, because games can’t be played by a single learner all students are involved in these activities. Games are learner-centered activities. If the game has a level of challenge, intrigue or surprise, the meaning of the language which is involved in this game will be more vivid, and therefore better remember. Games provide intense and meaningful practice in all the skills at all the stages of the teaching-learning process (presentation, practice, production), and they are used for many types of communication, such as agreement, disagreement, criticizing, encouraging, etc. Students enjoy taking part in games, so games provide the key feature of the effective learning process. The most difficult age for games is teenagers, for them – group activities + challenge. Games can be classified according to various criteria. The traditional classification of games is based on the distinction between language and speech: Focusing on language sub-skills; -pronunciation (language games); -vocabulary; -grammar; -spelling; -basic reading games. Skills games (on developing skills); -listening; -reading; -speaking; -writing games. Focusing on integration of different skills and language aspects. -drama; -puppet; -role-play; -simulations. Another classification of games focuses on objects or actions involved; Board games; Card; Guessing; Problem-solving; Moving; Drawing; Sound; Brainstorming; Warming-up; Discussion; Music; Story-telling; Memory; Magic tricks; Picture; Caring & sharing. The forms of organization of games. Whatever the gave is, teacher should use various class organizations which are most appropriate for the for of the game. It’s also import to distinguish between controlled, guided or communicative activities. In controlled aid and guided activities languages games are more appropriate as they focus on a certain aspect of the language. In this case, teacher usually provides the content of the game. Free or communicative activities focus more on skills and integration (skill games + integrated), the content may be provided by students themselves. Each type of game suggest the appropriate organization. Pair work is easy and fast to organize, it provides opportunities for intensive listening and speaking practice as students interact all the time, but we may have discipline problems. Some games (for 6-10 players) group work. If there is a challenge between the groups, they should be of a mixed ability. If there’s no challenge, the students may be organized in groups according to their ability or according to their personal choice. When students work in groups, it’s advisable to have a group leader who may insure (страховать) that the game is comprehensible for all the members and he or she may act as an intermediary between the learners and the teacher. The teacher’s role when students work in groups or teams is: -listening to; -contributing (taking part as a member) without interrupting or correcting. It’s essential that learners are totally aware and familiar with the games rules. The main feature of the game: there’re special rules, there should be a winner ( the difference from an exercise). Stages of organization: teacher explains the content & rules of the game. demonstrates part of the game with one or two students. The key language and the instruction should be on the blackboard. the 1st trial of 1 group in front of the whole class with the key language on the blackboard. then the key language should be covered/closed all the groups try this game. while students are working, teacher is going around and listens or participates, notes down typical and recurrent mistakes of the students. Practical points: Teacher should choose the game which is appropriate for this group of people in terms of language and type of participation. For young learners – in pairs, groups of 3. For intermediate/teens which are very shy – group work (5-6 students including 1 leader & 1 intermediary). For advanced – not more than 4 people (small groups). All students have a chance to speak, the responsibility is shared between all students. After choosing the appropriate game, teacher should explain the aim, rules of the game and characterize the participants (characters). Learners may distribute the roles of game themselves. -If there’re some reluctant students who don’t want to participate, teacher may ask them to act as a judge and score the points. 4) Stop a game before the learners are tired of it. 5) Teacher should never interrupt a game which is flowing successfully and shouldn’t correct the mistakes. Summary: Games are the most efficient means of acquiring language, though natural way, relaxation and enjoyment are important for all the learners regardless of the age and language proficiency. Games encourage students to improvise and use the target language spontaneously and appropriately.
| Test tasks for assessing receptive skills. Assessment is the process of measuring students’ performance in any of many different ways diagnosing the problems and measuring the progress students make. Testing is any form of formal assessment in any language area which is administered under the conditions which ensure measurement of individual performance in any given area. Evaluation is the process of considering all the factors that influence the learning process such as syllabus objectives, course design, materials, methodology, teachers and assessment (includes both assessment and testing). Types of tests: Of the tertiary level (higher level of education) Entry or placement test. Purpose: To select, to filter out (entry); To place students into groups according to the language ability (placement); Progress test (=continuous classroom assessment) Purpose: -to find out how well students have grasped the material covered and the learning objectives. 3. Achievement test. It is a summative form of assessment administered at the end of the term or an academic year. Purpose: -to see if students have achieved the objectives set out in the syllabus and can move on to a higher level. Content: -the material covered over a term or a year. -tests skills and knowledge. Implied features: must include both easy and difficult tasks selected from the whole material covered. It’s difficult to design and puts a lot of stress on teacher and students. 4.Diagnostic test Purpose: to find out problem areas and work out remedial activities, to evaluate teaching. 5. Qualification, or proficiency tests Summative and final assessment. Purpose: -to measure students’ mastering of what should have been taught; -to find out what students are capable of doing in a foreign language. for receptive skills (reading & listening);!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! true/false (focus on global understanding); multiple choice (focus on details); matching; ordering the passages or sentences logically; filling the space (sentence or a couple should be filled in between passages); transformation (to convey the same idea as in the text); completing; cloze text (обучающий тест, в котором некоторые слова заменены пробелами); - it deals with the idea of written or listening texts (same words are deleted). open-ended techniques (without the correct answer); choosing a title; ranking or ordering preferences; personalization; students express their personal attitude.
| Test tasks for assessing language (grammar and vocabulary). Assessment is the process of measuring students’ performance in any of many different ways diagnosing the problems and measuring the progress students make. Testing is any form of formal assessment in any language area which is administered under the conditions which ensure measurement of individual performance in any given area. Evaluation is the process of considering all the factors that influence the learning process such as syllabus objectives, course design, materials, methodology, teachers and assessment (includes both assessment and testing). Types of tests: Of the tertiary level (higher level of education) Entry or placement test. Purpose: To select, to filter out (entry); To place students into groups according to the language ability (placement); Progress test (=continuous classroom assessment) Purpose: -to find out how well students have grasped the material covered and the learning objectives. 3. Achievement test. It is a summative form of assessment administered at the end of the term or an academic year. Purpose: -to see if students have achieved the objectives set out in the syllabus and can move on to a higher level. Content: -the material covered over a term or a year. -tests skills and knowledge. Implied features: must include both easy and difficult tasks selected from the whole material covered. It’s difficult to design and puts a lot of stress on teacher and students. 4.Diagnostic test Purpose: to find out problem areas and work out remedial activities, to evaluate teaching. 5. Qualification, or proficiency tests Summative and final assessment. Purpose: -to measure students’ mastering of what should have been taught; -to find out what students are capable of doing in a foreign language. for testing language:!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! multiple choice (for both): -high level of reliability as based on recognition on the correct variant (but students can simply guess without thinking); -it’s difficult to design as all variants should deal with the topic. Gap filling (for both) -based on production the correct variant. Matching - + multiple matching (variant). Cloze test the words are deleted on a regular basis (that is each 7th word is deleted) students should fill them in. + variant of the test: C-test (every 3rd word is deleted, but the first letter is given) Building sentences; - words jumbled put in the correct order. Completing - complete the sentences. Transformation or reformulation - students are to express the same idea with another words with a given structure. Editing - the focus is on recognizing the correct variant and correct mistakes (not for schoolchildren) Lexicology
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| Lexicology Approaches to English phraseological studies and classifications of phraseologisms. All word combinations are divided into: free w c (in free w c we can substitute any w without causing changes in the meaning of other components ) (to go quickly) semi-free w c (in semi-free w c the substitution is limited to a certain groups of words) (to go to hospital) set-expressions (in set-expressions freedom of substitution is heavily limited if possible at all) (forbidden fruit) Set expressions are ready-made units whose composition and word order usually remains the same (it rains cats and dogs). Features that make set-expressions easily remembered: euphonic feature (rhythm, rhyme, alliteration) (safe and sound) imaginative f (it rains cats and dogs) expressive f (comparison, metaphor, metonymy) (to swallow a pill – проглотить обиду) Sources of set expressions: nature (to weather the storm, as welcome as snow in may); different types of human activities (to plough the send, to fish for the compliments ); mythology (the apple of discord); the Bible (forbidden fruit); folklore (peeping Tom); literature (the green-eyed monster) CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS I. By Vinogradov ( semantic, synchronic; is based on the degree of motivation): phraseological fusions (usually demotivated phrases, they may contain some words, that are not used in the language nowadays ) (tit for tet) phraseological unities (are as a rule easily motivated and can be translated into other lang or are even international) (to swallow the pill) phraseological combinations (are also easily motivated and they necessarily contain one w used in its direct meaning) (to make friends) II. By prof. Larin (semantic, diachronic) He believes that a word combination goes through 3 stages in its development. first it appears in the lang as a free w comb; then it becomes a metaphoric, easily motivated phrase; and then it becomes a unit with lost motivation (meaning can’t be deduced) Vinogradov’s and Larin’s classifications have been criticized because of their subjectivity. III. By Omosova (contextological) She defines phraseological units as units of fixed context and divides them into: phrasems (are always binary, consisting of 2 elements. One element has its meaning transformed in the context, another serves as determining context) (small hours – ранние часы, small change - мелочь, small talk – светская беседа); idioms (in idioms the meaning of all elements is weaken and idiomatic). IV. By Koonin Koonin’s approach is functional. He divides all phraseological units into 4 classes, depending on the function they perform in communication: nominating (units that name some person, quality, thing or circumstance) (a man of straw) nominative-communicative (phr units that are verbal by nature and name some action or process) (to go round the bush, to pull smb’s lag); communicative (they are sentence by form) (Curiosity killed a cat ); interjectional (don’t name anything but express human’s feelings and emotions) (a pretty cattle of fish!)
| Etymological analysis of the English vocabulary. Classification of borrowings. According to the origin all Engl words are divided into Borrowed 2. Native Native w include the following classes and semantic groups Common indo-European vocabulary (words, common to all indo-european languages) parts of human body (foot, leg) family relations (father, mother, son) animals (goose, swine) times of day (day, night) Heavenly bodies (sun, star) Adject. (red, new, glad) Numerals (from 1 to 100) Personal pronouns (except they) Some verbs (sit, stand, be, it’s) Germanic. W which are common to all germ lang. parts of the hum body (head, arm, finger) animals (fox, bear) natural phenomena (rain, frost) seasons of the year (winter, spring, summer) houses and furniture (house, room) adject (old, blue) Some verbs (make, drink) Proper Engl words. W which appeared in the Engl lang in the 5th century oe later (boy, girl, always, woman, lady) Native w are not very numerous, but they are very important in communication, as they denote elementary notions Borrowed w may be divided into source of bor may not coincide with the origin of borrowing, that is the language in wich the word made it’s first appearance. The source of bor. is the language from wich the word was taken by Engl. Sources. Celtic (bin – vedro; druid; Kent, London (krepost na holme) Latin borrowings (wall, street , monk, candle) Greek (theatre, music, metaphor, euphemism) Scandinavian (sister, sky, kill, die, they) French – 1st period 11th century – Norman conquest (titles of aristocracy – prince, army – officer, government – minister, law – justice) 2nd period – Renaissance (machine, technique, police) 3rd period – Modern 19-20 century (Champaign, attaché, blouse) Italian connected with music, art, military (piano, opera, balcony, bank) Spanish (negro, tomato, tobacco, banana) German Chemistry (zink, cobalt, nickel, blitz) Dutch – art and navigation (skipper, landscape, scotch) Russian (sputnik, bolshevic, vodka, samovar) Ukrainian (vareniky, vishivanka) Assimilation – is a process of making borrowed w pronounce, spell, mean and behave like native Engl words As depends on:1) the period of time, the word functions in English; 2)belonging to writing or oral speech. 3) belonging to general or special vocabulary. Depending on the degree of assimilation, borrowed w are divided into: 1) Completely – are borrowed w that do not differ from common Engl w. As a rule, these are old borrowings (table, short). 2) Partially- have some aspects which are not assimilated a. semantically unassim. w denote the reality of some other life (borsh) b. grammatically – w which preserve their own way of expressing grammat. categories (datum - data) c. phonologically – with the stress on the last syllable, read not according the Engl. rules (psychology, attaché) d. graphically – with diatric marks (naive, attaché ) 3) w taken from other languages which are not changed in any aspect and often have Engl. synonyms.
| The phenomena of polysemy and homonymy. Sources of homonymy. Polysemy is the capacity for a sign (e.g., a word, phrase, etc.) or signs to have multiple meanings (sememes), i.e., a large semantic field. HOMONYMS are w, identical in sound and spelling, or at least in one of these aspects, and different in meaning and distribution. Hom exist in many lang. but in Engl. This phenomenon is more frequent due to the large number of monosyllabic w. There exist many classifications of hom. I. According to the degree of similarity : 1. Hom proper (identical both in sound and spelling) (water – to water) 2. Homophones (identical in sound but different in spelling) (send - cent) 3. Homographs (identical in spelling, different in sound) (lead (лэд - свинец) – to lead) II. Based on the parts of speech they belong: lexical (belong to the same part of speech) (to lye – to lie) lexico-grammatical (belong to different parts of speech) (eye - I) III. Based on similarity of their paradigms (grammatical forms hom possess): partial (hom, that coincide not in all members of their paradigms ) (nose - knows) full (hom, that coincide in all members of their paradigms) (match (спичка)- match (матч)) SOURCES OF HOMONYMY phonetic changes, changes in pronunciation (night – knight (раньше читался книхт)) borrowings (bank (native Engl. w, bank of the river) – bank (borrowing from Italian)) word building conversion (water – to water) sound imitation (bang (чёлка) – to bang) shortening (Tec – technician or detective ) 4. splitting polysemy (распад полисемии)
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| Synonyms .and antonyms in Modern English. Classifications of them. Sources of synonymy. Synonyms – are different w, associated with the same or nearly the same dennotational meaning. Syn used to be divided into full (interchangeable into all context) and partial. Nowadays the prevailing point of view in linguistics is that all the syn differ in their distribution or in some other respect. Partial syn are classified into: stylistic – differ in their stylistic connotation (in the style they belong to) ideographic – differ in some other connotation: connotation of duration (to gaze, to stare) of manner (to thought, to tip-toe) of course (to blush (with shame), to redden (with fever, anger)) of evaluation (famous, notorious) of intensity (to like, to love, to adore) emotive (alone, lonely) Syn are united into synonymous rows. Each row has a dominant syn which is characterized by the following features: the most general meaning high frequency of usage broad combinability lack of connotations There are also contextual words, which are syn only in some context, not outside them (to buy- to get, to stand- to bear) SOURCES OF SYNONYMY borrowing from other lang (to ask Engl. – to question French) borrowing from dialects (girl Engl. – less Scottish) word-building conversion (to shelf – to shelve) shortening (fridge - refrigerator) euphemism (elevated - drunk) phraseology (naked = in one’s birthday suit) Antonyms – are w, belonging to the same part of speech and semantic class, having contrary or contradictory meanings in the same stylistic connotation. Contradictory notions – are opposed to each other and deny each other (alive – not dead). Contrary – are also mutually opposed but they are gradable, denoting the most distant points on the scale (young, middle-aged, elderly, old). CLASSIFICATION ON ANT is based on the way they are built: root (absolute) ant, which have different roots (dead - alive) derivational, having the same root but different affixes (helpful - helpless) contextual, w that are ant only in some context and are not opposed outside it (some people have much to live on, but little to live for). A polysemantic w may have different ant when used in diff meanings (short talk – long, short boy - tall). A polysemantic w may have ant in some meanings, and no ant in others (criticism – praise, literary criticism - - ). Many w have syn, but not so many have ant. Ant are characteristic of the following classes of: qualitative adj. (old - new) w formed from qualitative adj. (gladly - sadly) w denoting feelings and emotions (victory - defeat) prepositions of place (in - out) w denoting position in time and space (day – night, far - near) Ant should be differentiated from conversives, that describe the same situation, but from different sides (buy – sell, father - son)
| Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary. All w are divided into stylistically neutral and stylistically marked Stylistically neutral w –make up the so called basic vocabulary and have no stylist connotations. They can be used by everybody, irrespective of profession, education age group or paragraph location. They can be used in any styles and situations, everyday and everywhere. The meaning is broad, general and direct. A lot of their synonyms are stylistically marked (to go on (colloquial), to proceed (bookish), to continue (neutral)) Stylistically marked w – are limited in their use and include formal and informal vocabulary Formal voc comprises: 1. official voc (used in docs), (hereandafternamed) 2. learnt w (common to all fields of knowledge (analysis)) 3.w associated with professional communication, special terminology. Informal w are divided into dialect w used within a certain territory Colloquial Slang w Colloquial w are: literary colloquial and familiar col Literary col w serve for a comparatively wide sphere of communication. Are used in everyday conversation by both educated and non-educated speakers. Are used by all age groups. Are widely reflected in modern fiction (to have a bite; to give up). Familiarly col w are used by a more limited group of people – young and semi educated (doc, prof, to pick up, to shut up) Slang – is controversial as to its definition, characteristic and classification Slang consists either of new w or of current words employed in some special sense. Most of slang w are current w whose meanings can be metaphorically shifted. They are often accompanied by course, jocular or cynical colory( голова – attic, brain pen, upper story, head peg) People use slang for a number of reasons: 1. To sound picturesque, to sound differently 2. To sound modern, up to date 3. to demonstrate independence 4. to sound the same as the rest of the group, to show that you belong to it. After slang w have been used in speech for a certain period of time, people get accustomed to it and the most vital are accepted into a general literary voc (donkey, monkey, teenager, to bet, fan) But the majority of slang w are short lived and they die very quickly. Slang w should be differentiated from argot (звучит как АГО). Argot w – are usually unmotivated, were created as a secret language of criminals not to be understood by the outsiders Slang w are always motivated, they are transference of meaning can be understood
A neologism is a newly created w or a new meaning developed for an existent w or a newly borrowed w (a roll neck – водолазка) New words can be created by different ways : 1. affixation ( ) 2. Compounding (brain drain) 3. Shortening plus compounding (bionics) 4. Conversion (often plus compounding (teach in) As a rule neologisms at first a clearly motivated than they begin to function as indivisionable science. Most are dying soon, some are accepted to a general voc. Difference between neologisms and slang w is in connotation
| Meaning and its types. Semantic changes and their classification. Causes of semantic changes. The w meaning is a system of systems which combines denotative signifying meaning (what a w denotes) and connotative meaning (connected with the speaker) Denotative m is further divided into semes , the smallest meaningful components (father – 1. person, 2. parent, 3. male) Connotative m are numerous: cultural (kilt) associative (fir-tree) stylistic (father, dad, parent) expressive (to sprint, to gobble) emotive (lonely) evaluative (famous, notorious) Denotative and connotative m together make up the lexical meaning of the w. A w may have several meanings, thus being polysemantic. The m that developed first is called a primary meaning, which developed later are called secondary m. Each dictionary first gives the main w meaning, the rest are peripheral. The main m and the peripheral as a rule coinside, but not necessarily. A polysemantic w may have direct and figurative (indirect) ones. Connotation of the w may depend both on the w itself and on its surroundings (a fat girl, a fat cheque). SEMANTIC CHANGES OF THE M: specialization of the m- when the m becomes narrower (meat – раньше называли любую пищу, теперь только мясо) generalization – when the m becomes wider elevation – when the m goes up (knight – раньше так называли слугу, теперь рыцаря) degradation – when the m goes down (silly – раньше - благословенный) transformation metaphor (is a transference of m, based on similarity. It can be simulation of form, function, position) (head – pear head ) metonymy (is a transference of the m, based on contiguity ) (container - contains) euphemism (is a transference of the m, based on social norms, avoidance of rude w or impoliteness) (to die – to go to heaven, to meet the Maker, to join the silent majority) CAUSES OF SEMANTIC CHANGES: Linguistic borrowing (dog hound – раньше так называли всех собак, теперь только гончих) differentiation phrasal context (set expression) (token - жетон, знак) II. Extralinguistic – are connected with social, economic and cultural reasons (computer – раньше палочки для счета; villain - раньше сельский житель, сейчас негодяй)
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| Derivation. Affixation. Classifications of affixes. Derivation In linguistics, derivation is the process of forming a new word on the basis of an existing word, e.g. happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine. Derivation stands in contrast to the process of inflection, which uses another kind of affix in order to form grammatical variants of the same word, as with determine/determine-s/determin-ing/determin-ed. Affixation – is a process of forming new w by adding affixes to the stem. There are different classifications of affixes. I. According to the function and meaning: 1. derivational (lexical) 2. functional (grammatical) II. According to the position: suffixes 2. prefixes 3. infixes III. According to the origin: native – are those that existed in Old English or developed from OE w (-dom, -hood) borrowed – are further subdivided depending on the source lang. (Latin – ex-, -able, -ent; French - -age, -ance, -ence, -ancy, -ency) IV. According to the degree of productivity: productive – that form new w (-er) non-productive – that used to form new w, but not any longer (-ock – hillock – маленький холм) CLASSIFICATION OF SUFFIXES, depending on the part of speech: noun forming suff , are further subdivided: suff of abstract nouns (-dom, -ship, -ism) personal suff (-er, -ist, -nt) feminine (-ess, -ine) diminutive (-ock, -ette, -let) derogatory (-ton simpleton-prostofilya, -ster schoolster-plohoy ychitel’) verb forming suff (-ate, -en, -fy, -ish) adjective f s (-ful, -able, -less, -al, -ish) adverb f s (-ly, -wise clockwise- po 4asovoi strelke , -wards onwards - dalee) numeral f s (-teen, -ty, -th) PRIFIXES Usually prefixes don’t change general lexco-grammatical m of the w, so a new w and the prototype belong to the same part of speech. But there are some prefixes that do change the part of speech: verb forming prif (be- behead – obezglavit’, en- enslave – porabotit’, em- embed – vstavit’) adj f p (pre-, post-, non-, anti-) Meanings of prefixes: negative or reversetive (non-, ir-, il-, anti-, dis-) repeatitive (re-) adverbial of size and degree (over-, out-, under-, super-) -||- of manner (mis-) -||- of time (pre-, post-) -||- of place (in-, out-, sub-, trans-, a- aboard)
| Compounding. Classifications of compound words. Criteria of compounds. Compounding – is a way of forming new words by adding 2 or more stems together. CLASSIFICATION According to the way the stems are joined we single out: compounds, made by juxtaposition of stems without any linking element (blackboard, filmmaker, staractress) compounds, formed by a joining element expressed by a vowel or a consonant (handycraft, speedometer) comp., formed by a linking element expressed by a preposition, conjunction, article or a pronoun (forget-me-not, son-in-law) According to the structure of the stems that are joined: comp. containing simple stems (sun-beam, table-cloth) comp., in which at least 1 stem is a derivative (film-maker, chain-smoker) comp., in which at least 1 stem is shortened (math-teacher) comp., in which 1 of the stems is a compound itself (waste-paperbasket) According to the relation between the stems: endocentric (in endocentric comp. 1 of the elements is the main one, and the other describes, characterizes it) (text-book) exocentric (in exocentric comp. the elements are equal in their status) (kill-joy) Another classification is based on their conformity to general syntactic patterns: syntactic (can be transformed into word combinations according to common syntactic patterns) (sunrise- the rise of the sun) asyntactic (can’t be transformed into correspondent phrases by general rules) (book-maker, baby-sitter) Another classification is based on the degree of idiomacity: idiomatic (in idiomatic comp. the meaning of the whole is not equal to the meaning of the parts) (blackbird- дрозд) non-idiomatic (in non-idiomatic comp. the meaning of the whole is easily derived from the meaning of its parts) (table-cloth, text-book) CRITERIA OF COMPOUNDING Criteria that help us to differentiate between comp. and word combinations are the following: graphic: comp. are spelled solidly of with a hyphen, word combinations have 2 or more words (sunrise – film star). But this criterion is not sufficiently reliable (reference book, textbook, phrase-book) phonological: comp. have 1 stress, usually on the 1st stem, in w. comb. Each w has its own stress (a blackbird – a black bird). But all comp. adjectives are double-stressed (snow-white) semantic: comp. express 1 idea, w.c. several ideas (not reliable either) syntactic: in w.c. we can modify some word (a very black bird), in comp. we can’t (not reliable) morphological: existence of the connective element in comp. (speedometer), it’s reliable but there are very few words like this. There are bodyline cases between comp. and derivatives. Some elements (super-, midi-, maxi-, mini-, extra-,) are so productive nowadays that they function as affixes and not as separate roots. That’s why they are called “semi-affixes” now, because they function as affixes and preserve their lexical meaning and can be used as separate w.
| Shortening. Classification of shortened words. Abbreviations. Minor types of word building. SHORTENING- is a way of making new w by clipping a part of their prototypes. When a w is clipped its spelling can be changed to preserve pronunciation (microphone - mike). The meaning of a shorten w can be changed as well. Stylistic connotation can be different (lab- laboratory ). The scope of meaning can be different, a polysemantic word may become monosemantic (to double – 4 значения – to dub – to make a new soundtrack) The 3rd change. The meaning can be changed all together (history, story) The classification of certain words is based on the position of the clipped part: apokope (читается как эп’окапи) / final clipping – the final part is clipped and the beginning of the word remains (ad – advertisement, coke – Coca – Cola) Initial cl./ aphaeresis – the final part remains (phone – telephone) final and initial cl combined (flu – influenza, tec – detective) medial clipping/syncope – central part of the word falls out (specs – spectacles, ma’m – madam) Shorten words also include fusions blends or telescopic words which present a special case of shorten words since the result of both shortening and compounding. The patterns, which the telescopic words are made, are as follows: 1. the initial element of the 1st stem + the final element of the 2nd stem (smog=smoke + fog; branch = breakfast + lunch, bit = binary + digit; weddiversary = wedding + anniversary; spok = spoon + fork) 2. The initial element of the 1st stem + the 2nd stem (paratroops) 3. The 1st stem + final element of the 2nd stem (video – video games) Shorten words are opposed to shorten phrases which result from combined element of shortening and substantivation (weekly; finals – final exams) ABBRIVIATION Abbr – are the words, formed by initial letters of some other words Depending on the way they are read. The abbr are divided: abbr, read alphabetically (BBC, TV) acronyms, read as though they were ordinary English words (NATO, NOW – national organization of women) As special group of abbr is represented by foreign abbr which may be read: alphabetically (PM, AM) as corresponding English words (a.m in the morning) Minor types of word building .Types: Sound interchange. The way of forming new words by changing the sound in the root of the word (food –to feed, full – to fill) Sound imitation. The process of forming new words by imitation connected with agents, action, process (cookoo, to kiss) Back formation Is a process of forming new words by taking off what is taken or mistaken for a suffix (to battle – battler, to beg – beggar, to housekeep – housekeeper) Distinctive stress/ The way of forming new words by changing the position of the stress in them) (conduct – to conduct, import – to import, research – to research)
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| Morphological structure of English words. Types of morphemes. Classification of English words as to their structure and the way of building. Each word consists of morphemes, which are divided into roots and affixes. The root expresses the main lexical meaning of the w, and it’s often synonymous to the w. Such roots are called free morphemes. Affixes can’t function outside the w and they are always bound morphemes. According to their function and meaning affixes are divided into lexical (derivational) and grammatical (functional). If a w is stripped of a functional affix what remains is called a stem. If a stem is homonymous to the w it’s called a simple stem. According to the stem and the type of formation, w are divided into: simple w derivatives (root + 1,2 affixes) compounds (2 or more roots) derivational compounds (heart-shaped) shorten w abbriviations
| American English. The main differences between British and American English in the sphere of vocabulary. Differences between BrE and AmE exist in many levels of language. In pronunciation: [ё] - [ёр] girl [гёрл]; [а] - [э] last [лэст], bath [бэс], glance [глэнс]; in spelling: centre BrE – center AmE, theatre BrE – theater AmE; in grammar – the Present Perfect is not practically used; Subjunctive Mood is used more often; to visit smb (BrE) – to visit with smb (AmE). Vocabulary differences between BrE and AmE can be summarized to 4 cases: the same w, but different denotative meaning in each variant: to bath – плавать (AmE); купаться в ванной (BrE) subway – подземный переход (BrE), метро (AmE). the same w, but the scope of meanings is different in each variant: surgeon - любой врач (BrE), хирург (AmE); leader – лидер (BrE), передовая статья (AmE) the same w, the same denotation, but different in frequency, style or some other connotation: fall – archaism for autumn (BrE), used everyday (AmE) the same notion, denoted by different w in each variant chemist’s (BrE) - drugstore (AmE) queue – line cinema – movie luggage – baggage postman – mailman timetable – scedule rubbish – trash sweets – candy biscuit – cookie windscreen – windshield
| Dialects on the territory of the British Isles. Dialects and national variants. The factors which predetermine similarities and differences in the variants of the English language. Dialect – is a language variety, spoken by an identifiable group of people, usually within one territory. Dialects are limited to a certain territory and exist only in oral form. On the territory of The British Isles there exist 5 groups of dialects: Northern, Southern, Eastern, Western and Midland. Each d is characterized by certain features in pronunciation, grammar, spelling, vocabulary. For example: Western bus [бус], house [хус]; has for all persons. In Cockney (Eastern): yesterday [естердай]; -s for all persons; rhyming slang is used (North and South = mouse, boat race = face, I suppose = nose). Variants differ from dial, because they exist in a written form as well, they are not limited to a certain territory; quite often they have dialects of their own. Variants of the Engl. have similar and different features. Different features are predominated by the following factors: great distances between the colonies and metropoly; frequency of usage; influence of the native languages. Factors that made them similar: common basis (the Engl. language of the 17th century); common dialectal basis; similar basis: transplantation; formation of the national variant; functioning as a national variant of the Engl.
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| History of English The main periods in the development of English (general characteristics). There are 2 main classifications in the History of English. The first one is based on morphology, which was suggested by Henry Sweet. He paid attention to the state of unstressed endings, and according to this he developed 3 periods: 5 – 11 century – period of full endings 11 – 15 century – period of leveled endings 15 – nowadays – period of lost endings The second classification is based on historical events. 1. 5 – 11 century – Old English Period In the 5th century Anglo-Saxons settled in Britain, they possessed Runic alphabet. They were pagans (Tuesday – the name of their god). Barbarians ruined previous culture. From that time English language started. In 7th century Christianity was introduced. Also it’s time of introduction of the Latin alphabet. The next invaders were Scandinavian. The distinct North Germanic speech of the Norsemen had great influence on English, most obviously seen in the words that English has borrowed from this source. These include some very basic words such as take and even grammatical words such as they. + (want, need, husband, ugly). The common Germanic base of the two languages meant that there were still many similarities between Old English and the language of the invaders. 1400 place names in England have Scandinavian roots. 2. 11 – 15 century – Middle English Period In the course of what is called the Middle English period, the fairly rich inflectional system of Old English broke down. It was replaced by what is broadly speaking, the same system English has today, which unlike Old English makes very little use of distinctive word endings in the grammar of the language. 1066 – Norman Conquest. William brought old French to Britain. It became official language (parliament , the rich). English was neglected and used by the poor. Latin was used by Church. 10 000 words were adopted (French borrowings), 8 000 are still in use. 15 – nowadays – New English Period (Early English Period -15-16 cen. , Modern English Period) in the 15th century English national language was formed. London dialect became the leading one. It combined southern and east-midland dialects. During the medieval and early modern periods the influence of English spread throughout the British Isles, and from the early seventeenth century onwards its influence began to be felt throughout the world. The complex processes of exploration, colonization and overseas trade that characterized Britain’s external relations for several centuries became agents for change in the English language. More recently still, English has become a lingua franca, a global language, regularly used and understood by many nations for whom English is not their first language | The historical development of the English noun. Grammatical categories. The use of cases The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and case. Also, nouns distinguished three genders, but gender was not a grammatical category; it was merely a classifying feature accounting for the division of nouns into morphological classes. The category of number consisted of two members: singular and plural. The noun had four cases: Nominative, Genitive, Dative and Accusative. The Nominative. can be defined as the case of the active agent, for it was the case of the subject mainly used with verbs denoting activity; the Nom. could also indicate the subject characterized by a certain quality or state; could serve as a predicative and as the case of address. The Genitive. case was primarily the case of nouns and pronouns serving as attributes to other nouns. The meanings of the Gen. case were very complex and can only be grouped under the headings “Subjective” and “Objective” Gen. Subjective Gen. is associated with the possessive meaning and the meaning of origin. Objective Gen. is associated with what is termed “partitive meaning” as in sum hund scipa ‘a hundred of ships’. Dative. was the chief case used with prepositions, e.g. on morзenne ‘in the morning’ The Accusative. case was the form that indicated a relationship to a verb. Being the direct object it denoted the recipient of an action, the result of the action and other meanings. There were 8 declinations: 4 strong (a, o, I, u, n), 3 minor (r, s, root). a-stem d. was the most important in the History of English because the 2 productive affixes of modern English nouns “s” and “ ’s” go down to the paradigm of the a-stem declension. n-stem declension u-stem declension root-stem declension (i-mutation (the change of the root vowel) is characteristic to this declension. o-stem declension – only for feminine r-stem declension – denotes family relations s-stem declension – belong to children and cubs i-stem declension – names of tribes. ME noun. There remained only 2 cases: Nominative and Genitive. Declensions were unified and gradually most of the nouns got the endings of a-stem declension. The role of prepositions grew more and more (to show the relation between words in the sentence). NE noun. in the NE Genitive case is known as possessive case and its meaning became narrower because it is used exclusively with the nouns which denote living beings. In the 18th century the ‘ wasn’t reduced to denote the possessive case in spelling. The category of number proved to be the most stable category of thenoun.
| The verb in Old English. OE verb had 2 tenses – present and past. OE inherited the verb system from I.-E. Different conjugations: 2 main groups – weak and strong, also there were 2 numbers, 3 moods, 3 persons (in sing) Strong conjugation Strong conjugation included verbs which formed their past forms with the help of gradation (change of the root vowel). They were not numerous, but very frequently used. They had 4 basic forms in OE: 1) the infinitive 2) the past singular 3) the past plural 4) the past participle There were 7 classes of strong verbs, different by the pattern of gradation (each class had its own variation of the vowel change). The number of classes is greater nowadays. Weak conjugation These verbs form their past participle with the help of a dental suffix. In OE were 3 classes of weak verbs slightly different by the form of the dental suffix and the stem vowel that joined this suffix to the root. These weak verbs had 3 forms: 1) infinitive 2) preterite 3)participle II. Mixed or preterite-present verb They had vowel gradation in their present tense forms, corresponding to the vowel gradation of the strong verbs their past was formed according to the pattern of weak verbs combined some characteristics from both strong and weak verbs. Many of them survive as our modal verbs (can, shall, will, must). There was a small group of irregular verbs teach (taught), write (wrote, written), go (went), be (am, are, is, was, were). Non-finite forms 2 non-finite forms: 2 infinitive, 2 participles. The infinitive had no verbal grammatical categories. Inflected (dative) infinitive was used in the independent syntactic positions, mainly as the adverbial modifier of purpose. inflective infinitive was used in combinations with preterite-present verbs and another verbal collocations, the 2 infinitives were often but not always interchanging. 2 types of participles P. I had the ending –ende, it was declined according to the weak adjectival declensions. It might be used both as predicate, attribute. P. II had a stem of its own. In strong verbs it was marked by a certain grade of the root vowel interchange and by en. In weak verbs the P. II ended in –d or –t and was commonly marked by . P II was declined as an adjective and also could be used in syntactic functions of attribute and predicative.
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| The development of the verb in Middle English and New English. All types of verbs which existed in OE (strong\weak) were preserved in ME. Non-finite forms have changed in the direction from nominal to verbal parts of speech. They are no longer decline nor are they agreed with the nouns. The infinitive loses the category of case and acquires a particle “to”. Participle I which has an active meaning and expresses process of doing smth in ME changes its shape (ende-inde-inge). Participle II continued to be used with the prefixes - y. Changes in various classes of ME verbs. Strong verbs. The number of basic forms remained the same but due to the reduction of endings we may find homonymy of forms. Weak verbs. The number of weak verbs grows significantly in ME. Almost all the new born or borrowed verbs became weak. The changes were phonetical. The productive weak type was formed by the of a second class and some verbs of the first class. The endings became ed and de. The irregular verbs still form a separate group, though there were some differences. The preterite-present verbs were grouped in the same way as in OE except that could function as auxiliaries for the future and subjunctive mood. There were constant migration in these verbs, and then it stopped. Several new categories developed on the basis of OE verbal phrases. This development gave to analytical forms. the category of voice developed as a result of combination of beon (to be)/ weorpan (to get, become) + P II of transitive verbs – the opposition of (non) passive appeared. the category of order habban + P II of transitive verbs / beon + P II of intransitive - the opposition of perfect /non perfect developed. Future tense forms: scullan/ wiillan + infinitive. The analytical forms of future forms developed - the category of tense became a 3 member opposition. NE changes: The verb lost the ending of the infinitive, all the endings of the present tense but 3 person singular. All verb except “to be” lost the destinction between the past tense singular and past tense plural. Thus the 4 basic forms of strong forms were reduced to 3.The continuous form of the verb developed on the basis of phrasal combination of the verb beon + P I thus a new category developed (cat. of aspect). Gerund developed in the NE as a result of the verbal noun which ended in –ing and P I. The Infinitive, Gerund and Participle have developed analytical perfect and passive forms. In addition to that the Infinitive has also developed Continuous forms.
| The historical background of Modern English spelling. OE spelling was close to pronunciation. All OE vowels were monofunctional (one letter – one sound). In OE diphthongs were digraphs (2 letters). In ME spelling changes were mostly caused by French. 4 letters went out of use, 6 letters were borrowed from French. Most unstressed vowels were leveled and reduced to a sound [ ] denoted by e. Four main groups of spelling changes 1) Changes connected with loss endings after short ending. After the syllable with a long vowel the ending e remained just to show the pronunciation of previous vowel. OE takon – Me taken 2) Changes connected with double consonants. In a lot of words double consonants preceding to final weak [ ] became simplified. In some words double consonants remained, mostly they were ss, ff, ll, ck, kk. The same consonants were doubled by analogy in other words. Medially all consonants were doubled after a short vowel in order to show that this vowel was shot. 3) Changes connected with latinization of spelling (p-d of Renaissance) letters were not pronounced. 4) Changes connected with introduction of new digraphs ea, oa. After 15th century no great changes in spelling can be found because all the changes in NE were on the phonetic level.
| The historical development of the English vocabulary. OE lexicon. It was extensive, by the German inharitage . Roughly half of English words derived from latin and French/ Native words are the most frequent (they are shorter and more general). According to some scientists in OE words 52% were French, Latin. Word building/formation/composition was highly productive way of formation words in OE. it was more productive in nominal parts of speech than in verbs. Compounding. Nouns and adjectives were mainly formed by compounding. The final part of compounder showed the gender and part of speech. Noun + noun compounding was the most productive. Affixation. Prefixes were frequently used. Foreign borrowings were used rather than production. Numerous Latin words which found their way into the English language during these five hundred years clearly fall into two main groups: 1) words pertaining to religion 2) words connected with learning. The total number of Latin words is over 400 (most of them didn’t survive to nowadays). Also there were Celtic borrowings. Abundant borrowing from Celtic is to be found only in place-names. The OE kingdoms Kent, Deira and Bernicia derive their names from the names of Celtic tribes. The name of York, the Downs and perhaps London have been traced to Celtic sources. Various Celtic designations of ‘river’ and ‘water’ were understood by the Germanic invaders as proper names: Ouse, Esk, Exe, Avon; Thames, Stour, Dover. ME vocabulary Scandinavian words couldn’t be divided into semantic groups (them, till. sky, are) French loans can be divided into semantic groups: -industrial (butcher, smith) -nuclear family (aunt, cousin) - loan translations (… - in - law) WE innovation – conversion. NE vocabulary New affixes appeared (post, ex). Words connected with Internet, beginning with e (e-mail). Backformation: baby-sitter - to baby –sit Clipping: ad – advertisement, vet – veterinary Acronyms: TV, URV, pop-mobile “punch” – dream, Hindi
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| Theoretical Grammar Theoretical Grammar The noun. Its features and classification. The categories of number and case. The noun The noun as a part of speech is characterized by the following features: The lexico-grammatical meaning (=substance or thingness); Typical stem-building elements, or lexico-grammatical morphemes. Typical suffixes: ment; er; tion; ness; ity; dom; ship; hood. the grammatical categories of number and case (Blokh: definite/indefinite); combinability; syntactic functions (subject, object). Classification of nouns: Countable/uncountable nouns discreet – apple, book indescreet – usually uncountable Criterion: if a noun forms plural countable, if not uncountable. Animate/inanimate (noun denotes the nature of the object) Proper/common nouns. Proper nouns denote unique objects, things and phenomena. Common nouns denote non-unique objects, etc. Collective nouns (a crowd, family, police, etc.) Material nouns/abstract nouns (the nature of the object is taken into account) Declinable(have the category of case)/indeclinable (those that are not used in the possessive case – practically all inanimate nouns.) Countable/uncountable and declinable/indeclinable division is semantical rather than grammatical. The combinability of the nouns is variable. They have left-handed connection with articles, pronouns, most adjectives, numerals (two visitors, the third degree); with prepositions nouns have both left-hand & right-hand connections. But only left-handed connections are a feature of the noun, since most parts of speech have right-hand connections with prepositions. With verbs nouns have both left-hand & right-hand connections (John met Mary). A glass door noun + noun Summer vacation Brain power A gold watch A straw hat A leather shoe An iron man Of special interest is the discussion of the combinability of nouns with other nouns. Combinations like rose-garden, cannon-ball (пушечное ядро). That is why in linguistics this problem is called a cannon-ball problem. The issue is whether the 1st component is a noun or an adjective. Some linguists believe that the 1st component is not a noun and produce the following arguments: The noun in disposition is not used in plural (a rose garden, but a garden of roses). Nouns are used as attributes only in the possessive case (like last week’s meeting) or with a preposition (leaders of the union). Counter-arguments: Of course, quite a few nouns are formed from lexemes that belong to other parts of speech by means of conversion (native – a native). Conversion means a change of lexeme paradigm, but very often the plural morpheme is preserved in the first component (An International Drugs Organization, his earnings report). The question is: does the first component really change its paradigm??? If the second argument is strictly observed, then one should think that the proper nouns in the examples like the Obama administration are attributes, because they are used without the possessive case morpheme. An attribute noun in the common case can be modified by an adjective or a numeral, and this type of modification is typical for nouns (a low-interest credit, A Second World War Memorial – in these examples nouns are modified by adjectives or numerals). Taking into account these three counter-arguments, we consider the first component to be a noun. The categories of number and case The category of number of English nouns is the system of opposemes, showing whether the noun stands for one or more than one object. An English noun lexeme can contain 2 number opposemes at most (girl’s – girls’). Most nouns have only 1 number opposeme (book), many have no number opposemes at all (news, water, information, etc.). English nouns fall into two large groups: countable (the ones which have the category of number) and uncountable (have no category of number). Uncountable nouns can be divided into singular invariable nouns (they have no plural forms) and plural invariable nouns (they have no singular forms). Revise: if a noun end in –o, when we add –s, when –es; in what cases the final y is not changed into I; the plural form of the noun penny (pennies, pence); the 12 nouns that end in f ve (when f is not changed into –ve, when both are possible). Irregular plurals if nouns distinguish plural and singular by vowel change (man, woman, louse, goose, tooth); 2 nouns +en (ox – oxen, child – children); With some nouns plural is identical with singular (swine, dear, sheep, fish, trout, salmon); Identical singular and plural forms are typical for nationalities: a Japanese – the Japanese, a Swiss – the Swiss. 2 nouns borrowed from Latin, 1 from French (species, series, corps – marine corps: kooz – plural, kops - singular). Nouns that indicate the number (head, couple, pair, dozen, score, etc.) have the similar + singular and plural when they are preceded by a numeral (3 dozen of bags, 1 thousand head of cattle). + Greek and Latin borrowings - повторить!!! Plural in compound nouns Invariable nouns: singular invariable nouns uncountable nouns a) material nouns (can be countable nouns when they denote portions, kinds of smth) e.g. tea, sugar, silver, water, iron, etc. b) abstract nouns (courage, love, music, anger) proper nouns ( The Thames, Henry, the Germays) some nouns that end in –s: a) news, means, gallows. b) diseases (measles, mumps) c) nouns denoting some games (billiards, dominoes, rafts; but a billiard table) d) some proper nouns and names of countries (the United Nations, the United States) e) some nouns that end in –ics (ceramics, tactics, statistics, linguistics, etc.) Usage differs depending on the meaning. 2. Plural invariable nouns Marked plurals nouns that denote objects and pieces of cloth consisting of 2 parts (binoculars, shorts, pants, jeans, etc.). To make a singular form we use “a pair of…”. Achieves, arms, goods, headquarters, outskirts, surroundings, customs, minutes, etc. Arm – part of a body (regular, plural); arms – weapons (irregular plural). Custom – customs. To go through the customs, to put in the minutes (the minutes of a meeting – протокол собрания). Proper nouns (the Netherlands, the Hebrides, etc.) Invariable unmarked plurals. kettle, clergy, gentry, people, police, vermin and poetry. A strange people – неизвестный народ b) substantivized adjectives denoting people (the old, the young, the rich, etc.) A group of collective nouns (family – families, and a singular form can be used with a verb in plural) e.g. My family consists of… Five families are happy. The family are happy. (AmE) Government, team, committee, orchestra. The Category of Case The category of case of nouns is a system of opposemes (like girl – girls) that shows the relations of the noun to other words in speech. Case relations reflect the relations of the substances the nouns name to other substances, actions, states, etc. in the world of reality. All case opposemes are identical in content. They contain 2 meanings of common and possessive case. An English noun lexeme can contain 2 case opposemes at most (singular and plural): e.g. girl – girl’s, girls – girls’. Some nouns have only 1 case opposeme (those that are not used in singular or in plural). A lot of nouns do not have any case opposemes at all (declinable/indeclinable). Some nouns have a potential category of case: -book’s ideas are rather old. Some nouns belong to declinable (that have the category of case) and indeclinable depending on their meaning. e.g. Youth (young) – indeclinable. Youth (a person) – declinable. Declinable nouns subgroups: Nouns denoting persons and animals (but when animal is not any more alive, it’s not used in the genitive. e.g. John’s idea, cow’s milk. Nouns denoting time and distance. e.g. minute, moment, hour, year, mile, inch, foot, day, month, week + the words today, yesterday and tomorrow. e.g. Today’s newspaper, a two-week holiday=two weeks’ holiday, an hour’s drive. 3) Names of the countries and towns. e.g. Australia’s population, Britain’s National Museums. 4) Names of newspapers and nouns denoting different kinds of organizations. e.g. The government’s policy, the firm’s organization, the Guardians’ covers. 5) Nouns world, nation, country, city and town. e.g. The world’s top dancers/singers; the city’s population/museums. 6) With the nouns ship, boat and car. e.g. the ship’s crew. 7) Nouns denoting planets (sun, moon, earth). e.g. the earth’s climate. 8) With inanimate nouns in some set expressions. e.g. at snail’s pace, a needle’s eye, a thumb’s length. The range of options about the category of case is rather wide. Some think there is no grammatical category of case in modern English, others prove that a part from the traditional common and possessive cases there is also dative and accusative. The genitive is expressed by ‘s or the preposition of the dative (preposition to + word order), while the accusative is distinguished by word order alone. We can’t agree that in these examples the meaning of case is expressed morphologically. Those who deny the existence of the category of case point to the fact that the morpheme ‘s can be attached not only to nouns and noun phrases, but also to other parts of speech and even clauses. e.g. Mary and John’s daughter, somebody else’s house, the blond-I-have-been-dancing-with’s name was Beatrice. The case is not a morphological category in English, it has nothing to do with nouns. The same meaning can be expressed with the help of prepositions. The only difference is in syntactic function. On the other hand, when we consider the counter-argument that semantically ‘s always refers to the noun. In the attributive function the noun either has the possessive case morpheme or loses its plural morpheme. e.g. a three days’ conference, a three-day conference. The number of meanings that genitive can convey – REV | The adjective. Its features and classification. The category of the degrees of comparison. The Adjective – ADJ. The adjective as a part of speech can be characterized by the following features: the lexico-grammatical meaning of: quality of a substance. Its typical stem-building elements: -able; -ing; -ful; -al; -ous; -ic; -ive; -ly (weekly, monthly, daily). 3) it has a grammatical category of civilization. 4) adjectives have combinability: RH: nouns (a good boy); LH: adverbs (very interesting, extremely important); Link-verbs (to seem clever). 5) the adjective functions in the sentence as an attribute (a nice day), a predicative. The classification of adjectives: It has 1 category (of comparison). There are comparable and non-comparable adjectives. Classification: Comparable (have the category of case)/ non-comparable (don’t have). Qualitative/relative Qualitative – make the core of comparable adjectives: e.g. big, hard, small, dark, comfortable, quick). Relative – they are usually derived and denote the relations between the phenomenon denoted by the modified noun and the phenomenon denoted by the stem of the adjective (e.g. a wooden house, a historical event, a philosophical issue, technical progress, military uniform). Some qualitative adjectives do not have degrees of comparison (final, dead, fixed, pregnant). Some relative adjectives can be used with degrees of comparison (a very military design, purely philosophical issue). Sometimes adjectives are polysemantic and belong to different sub-classes: e.g. a wooden hut – relative; e.g. He looked at him and his face seemed even more wooden than ever. – qualitative. It was noticed that only qualitative adjectives are used with verbs in the continuous forms and relative are not used: e.g. The hut is wooden. The actor is being wooden. He’s English (quality). His being English (behavior, manners) – relative. The category of degrees of comparison It is the system of opposemes like ‘long – longer – the longest’ showing quantitative distinctions of qualities. It shows whether the adjective denotes the property of some substance absolutely or relatively, as a higher or the highest amount of the property in comparison with that or some of all other substances. There are 3 degrees of comparison: Positive, Comparative and Superlative. There are no special morphemes for making Positive degree. The Comparative and Superlative degrees are built either synthetically (+gram. Morphemes), or analytically (+gram. Word morphemes ‘more’ and ‘most’. Depending on the number of syllables in the adjective + phonetic structure + adj. ending in –er, -y, -e, -our synthetically. Some suppletive forms: stem of the adjective changes: good – well – the best. Devices: the use of comparison ‘more-most’ seems to have no restrictions in present English. It appears that the synthetical way of forming degrees of comparison is unproductive and can therefore be considered a relic of the old morpheme system of English. Even at the end of the 19th century – unusual was the synthetical way. Most adjectives were formed analytically. “Curious – curiouser” – was unusual even then. There’s a controversy about usage of ‘more’ and ‘most’. Some believe they have only grammatical meaning. Others – they are lexemes. Then they have lexical meaning: proved by contrasting ‘less’ and ‘least’. The adjectives can be repeated to achieve some emphatic effect. In all the Indo-European languages adjectives can be substantivized = converted into nouns. In English it’s easier than in other languages due to the scarcity (little number) of stem-building elements. When adjectives are converted into nouns they no longer indicate attributed of substances, but substances that possess these attributes. E.g. the poor, the helpless. Adjectives can be converted into nouns wholly ( acquire not only the lexico-grammatical meaning of nouns, but also typical morphological categories (number+case) and combineability. E.g. native-a native, natives; a young native’s hut) or, in most cases, partially (adjective acquires lexico-grammatical meaning of noun, but don’t have typical morphological categories of it. E.g. the poor, the rich.). Syntactic function: Some adjectives only predicatively, only attributively, only pre-positively, post-positively | The article. Functions of articles. The Article Not all the grammarians recognize article as a separate part of speech. The – definiteness, a/an – indefiniteness. The article doesn’t have any grammatical categories, lexico-grammatical morphemes, thus the articles are distinguished only by two common features: Their right-hand combinability with nouns. Their function of noun-specifiers. The use of the indefinite article (3 main purposes): Classifying (in its classifying function the article serves to refer an object to the class or group of objects of the same kind. E.g. This is a book. It can also be accompanied by pre- or post-modifying attributes. E.g. It’s an interesting book by a modern English writer); Generic; Numerical. In its generic function, the indefinite article implies that the object denoted by the noun is spoken of as a representative of the class and, therefore, what is said about the object (person, animal, thing, notion, etc.) mentioned refers to any object (person, animal, thing, notion, etc.) of the same kind. e.g. A giraffe has a long neck. A bird can fly. A tram runs on rails. In its numerical function, the indefinite article retains its original meaning of the cardinal numeral ONE. e.g. He’ll be back in an hour. He didn’t say a word. The indefinite article is used in some set expressions: at time, at a glance, at a distance of (but in the distance, in the depth), in a hurry (in haste), to be at a loss, to have a sort throat, what a shame, etc. The use of the definite article It’s functions are: Specifying; Generic. In its specifying function, the definite article serves to single out an object or a group of objects from all the other objects of the same kind. The specification is carried out by means of: A restrictive attribute (functioning as post-positive modifiers). E.g. The child of forest. Preceding context. E.g. The man standing next to me is my father. The situation of speech. The meaning of the notions. Pre-modifying attribute can have a restrictive force too: very, right, left, wrong, only, opposite, least, some, ordinal numerals. .e.g. We got into the wrong train. This is the very book you were looking for. Used with definite article, they have a shift in meaning: an only child (has no brothers or sisters); the only child. Preceding context and the type of the sentence: an object or a group of objects can be specified by the reference to the preceding context. This use of the definite article is referred to as its anaphoric use. e.g. There lived a boy. The boy’s name was James. Anaphoric relation presupposes existence of two elements: antecedent (a boy) and substitute (the boy). e.g. My wife has always had a passion for… The passion… Situational specification: a situation specifies the object. e.g. Can you shut the door? I liked the play, but I didn’t like the music. Definite article in its specifying function is used with unique objects or notions: the sun, the sea, the horizon. e.g. The sun sink below the horizon. Sometimes these nouns are preceded by indefinite article when some phase (aspect) of the object is meant figuratively. e.g. The sun was shining in the sky/in the blue sky. The holiday did me a world of good. In its generic function, the definite article can be omitted – it’s a higher level of abstraction. e.g. Man can be destroyed, but not defeated. Some set expressions with the definite article (the other day, by the dozen/hundred, by the hack, in the night, in the singular, in the past, in the future (abstract future), in Future (from this time on), on the whole, to sit the exam, by the by, by the way, by the shoulder, to be wounded in the knee, to keep the house, to play the violin, to tell the time, etc. One more function of the definite article: it is often used in the theme-rhyme indication. Rhyme: A girl came into the room. Theme: The girl came into the room. |
| The adverb. Its features and classification The category of the degrees of comparison The Adverb As a part of speech it is characterized by the following features: lexico-grammatical meaning: qualitative, quantitative or circumstantial characteristics of actions, states or qualities. Morphological categories: comparison. Typical stem-building elements: -ly (the most productive), -ward (s), -ways (e.g. sideways), -wise (e.g. clockwise – по часовой стрелке, anti-clockwise – против часовой стрелки). Combinability: -LH: verbs (e.g. to drive slowly) -RH: adj., adv., sometimes with nouns (e.g. very interesting, too quickly) 5) syntactical functions: adverbial modifier. Some adjectives coincide in form with adverbs: e.g. it was hard to do; to work hard; to drive fast; it’s fast. But: lovely, friendly – adjectives!!! There is tendency in AmEng to use adjectives instead of adverbs. The category of degrees of comparison is similar to that of adjective. It’s the system of the opposemes (sooner – soonest, active – more active – the most active) showing whether the characteristic of the adverb contains is absolute or relative. Built up either synthetically or analytically. The number of synthetical forms is smaller if compared with adjectives since there’re fewer monosyllabic and disyllabic adverbs with regard to the category of degrees of comparison adverbs like adjectives fall into: Comparable/non-comparable (the number of the non-comparables is much greater among adverbs than among adjectives. Adverbs can be divided into 3 lexico-grammatical sub-classes: Qualitative; Quantitative; Circumstantial. Qualitative adverbs (e.g. loudly, quickly, brightly, slowly) usually modify verbs, they show the quality of an action or state much in the same way as qualitative adjectives show the quality of some substance (e.g. to speak loudly – a loud speech). In most cases qualitative adverbs with the help of the most productive adverb-forming suffix ‘-ly’. They usually have the category of degrees of comparison. As they characterize the quality of an action or state, they are inwardly bound with the verb they modify and are usually placed as close as possible to this verb. Quantitative adverbs (e.g. very, rather, too, nearly, greatly, fully, hardly, utterly) show the degree, measure or quality of an action, quality or state. Besides verbs, they can modify adjectives, adverbs, numerals and even nouns. E.g. She knew only it too well. He had become fully aware of her. He’s wholly master of the situation. Circumstantial adverbs serve to denote various circumstances that attend an action. Fall into 2 groups: Adverbs of time and frequency (e.g. yesterday, tomorrow, before, often, twice, again). Adverbs of place and direction (e.g. inside, behind, upstairs). Circumstantial adverbs are like qualitative are not inwardly connected with the verbs they modify. They don’t characterize the action itself, but name certain circumstances attending the action and usually refer to the situation as a whole. They are not necessarily placed near the verb, can occupy different positions in the sentence. E.g. yesterday – fronted or in the end. Only a small group of circumstantial adverbs denoting indefinite time and place have degrees of comparison. (e.g. soon – sooner – soonest, often – more often – most often), but most of them have only grammatical categories. They usually perform syntactical functions of adverbial modifier of time and place.
| The pronoun. Its features and classification The Pronoun The feature of pronoun as a part of speech is that they are not united n any of the 5 features. They have certain grammatical features, but what unites them is the way thy denote reality. Pronouns are words serving to denote substances, qualities, quantities, circumstances, etc. not by naming or describing them, but by indicating them. As words of the v-ry they have extremely general meanings, but in speech pronouns indicate particular objects, qualities, etc. Pronouns can be defined as words whose meanings are very general and stable, but whose references in speech are particularly valuable and relative with regard to the speaker and the situation of speech. “Pronoun” means “instead of a noun”. E.g. ten books – some books (number); interesting books – these books; Tom’s books – his books. Classification: Pro-nouns; Pro-adjectives; Pro-adverbs; Pro-numerals. Pronouns are a collusion of words correlated with different parts of speech. This accounts for a fact (объясняет тот факт) that pronouns are not united by any common morphological categories or syntactical functions. Since they form a class on the basis of their semantical features classification is carries out on the same principles though some grammatical features are taken into consideration too. Classification (Hymovich & Rogovskaya): -personal;-possessive;-reflexive; -demonstrative;-interrogative;-connective;-reciprocal; -indefinite;-negative;-generalizing;-quantitative;-contrastive. Personal pronouns form the nuclear of the class and serve to indicate all persons and things from the point of view of speaker. e.g. It’s raining. I’m in the room. (don’t substitute anything). They are believed to have the category of case: Nominative and Objective. Some grammarians suggest that there are 3 cases of English personal pronouns: Subjective, Objective and Genitive (refers to possessive pronouns). Blokh believes that personal pronouns have no category of case, instead there are 4 individual types of pronouns: Nominative, Objective and Possessive conjoined, absolute. There are serious changes (hers, mine) in the correlation between the uses of Nominative and Objective Cases. There is a tendency to use the Objective case instead of the Nominative when the pronoun is used predicatively or when it is separated by the predicate verb. e.g. Me and my parents enjoy the party (instead of “I”). It’s me. (instead of “I”). Though: it’s he, but it’s her. – sub-stand. We usually speak of 2 numbers of pronouns. Pronouns have lexico-grammatical categories of number (differ lexically, not grammatically). When used in speech, personal pronouns can acquire a generalizing force: e.g. they say …: he who takes the… Possessive pronouns are usually treated as pre-adjectives, but in reality they are pronouns and that substitute nouns in the possessive case. In Modern English there are 2 sets of possessive pronouns: conjoined and absolute. One of the features of Modern English is the extensive use of conjoined possessive pronouns as noun determiners (like definite articles). Very often their possessive meaning is so weak, that they can easily interchange with the definite article. e.g. He stood with his hands in his pockets. Reflexive pronouns are compound pronouns. The second element “self” expressed anaphoric relations (substitute antecedent) of the 1st element that is it shows that the 1st element refers to the person mentioned previously in the sentence. They distinguish lexico-grammatical meanings of person, number and gender. In colloquial speech there’s a tendency to use reflective pronouns as synonyms of personal pronouns. e.g. My wife and myself were left behind. They think that they are more stylistically loaded than personal ones. Demonstrative pronouns | The verb. Its features and classification. The verb It is the most complicated part of speech. The verb as a part of speech can be characterized by: categorial meaning of a verb is action, process, state. lexico-grammatical morphemes: suffixes (-ize, -ise, -en, -ad, -te) grammatical categories: the number of them and their nature are debatable issues between grammarians even now. The categories of voice, Aspect, Order. Tense, mood, person, number. combinability: the verb forms by letteral connections with nouns and pronoun and mostly right-hand connections with adverbs. The main syntactic function is that of the predicate. Also the non-finite parts of speech do not have all the grammatical categories that the finite forms have, they are on the periphery of the field of verb – adjectival and noun features. The verb has a large class of lexemes, the main division runs between the finite forms of the verb and the non-finite forms of the verb (the gerund, the infinitive and the participle). Other classifications: Notional/ semi-notional Subjective/objective verbs Terminative/non-terminative verbs Stative/dynamic Link verbs Modal verbs Auxiliary verbs Strong/week verbs ( regular/irregular verbs) The origin of –ed (feature of Germanic languages) - REVISE Notional/semi-notional The majority of English verbs are notional that is they have full lexical meaning they can function alone and one verb can form a sentence (look. See!). This is called isolatability. Semi-notional verbs have very general or faded lexical meanings. In their semantics the meaning of verbs is obscure. S-n are hardly isolatable, they include two groups: linking verbs and modal verbs. Link verbs convey the meaning of state or transition to some state. The second feature is their combinability: they form right-hand connections with adjectives, sometimes nouns. e.g. to be (can be a notional, link verb, modal verb, an auxiliary very) to see, to appear, to taste, to smell, to look, to turn out, to feel. – convey the meaning of transition to a state. to be (link verb): she is beautiful. I am smart. To be (modal verb): you are to be here. To be (as part of an analytical form: they are sleeping at the moment To be as a notional verb (denotes location): he is in Paris. To look (notional verb): he is looking at the black-board. He looks well. Modal verbs – being semi-notional, they convey the meaning of attitude towards the object mentioned (may, might, can, could, shall) Auxiliary verbs – they are not semi-notional, and by their nature, they are not the verbs at all. They are grammatical word morphemes. In some grammar books they are called aux. verbs, but the term si Verbs are divided into Subjective and objective depending upon their combinability with words, denotiong the subjects and the objects the name. Objective are mostly associated with two nouns or noun denoting the subject and the object of the action. Subjective verbs are associated only with nouns denoting the subject of the action. e.g. you are interfering with him. – objective verb he wrote a letter – objective verb she stood up and kissed him – subjective Objective verbs that are connected with their object words directly are called transitive. All the other verbs, both subjective and objective are intransitive. The majority of verbs are poly-semantic. e.g. The door open. – subjective, intransitive. He opened the door. – objective, transitive. Add some more water. – objective, transitive. The music added to our enjoyment. – objective, intransitive. The figures would not add. – subjective, intransitive. Verbs can be classified in accordance with the aspective nature (видовая природа) of their lexical meaning inter-terminative and non-terminative. This classification is very subjective (if an cation has a limit in its semntics – terminative, if not – non-terminative.) Terminative verbs denote actions which cannot develop beyond a certain inheaed limit (внутренне присущий) – to arrive, to stop, to catch, etc. Non-terminative do not have such link in their semantics. e.g. He was carrying a box on his shoulders – n-t take this empty box away and bring me a full one. T He turned round the corner. –t The earth turns around the sun –n-t. I have been working all day. – Non-terminative. The storm worked great ruin. – Terminative.
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| The verb. The category of voice. Verb categories There are 3 categories found both, in the finites and the non-finites. These are the category of voice, the category of order (time correlation) and the category of aspect. The first two are found in all the verbits while the third one is found only in the infinitive. The category of voice. It is confined to objective verbs and is represented by two-member opposemes (love – is loved, has loved – has being loved, etc. teach – be taught, will teach – will be taught). The meaning of the category is that it shows the direction of the action. The active form presents an action as issuing from agent, while the passive form as experienced by its object. The agent and the object are both subjects in sentences with active and passive forms respectively. The act objet becomes a passive subject when the Verbs that do not have voice opposites are subjective verbs and some objective verbs of weak dynamic forms, like belong, cost, fail, lust, own, Voice forms play an important part in the organization of sentence structure and in indicating the old and new information in the sentence. e.g. John (old) gave Liza a picture. New The picture(old - theme) was given to Liza. New rhyme Liza was given the picture. The category of voice in English as in other Germanic languages is still in the stage of development. Passive continuous forms like his house is being built, became standard only in the 19th century and there are no perfect continuous forms in the passive. It’s important to point out that the non-perfect non-cont. passive forms are difficult to distinguish from the combination of the link verb and participle I. It causes controversy among grammarians. e.g. His duty is fulfilled. – is it passive or is it a combination of a link verb + predicative compound nominal predicate. Some believe that Passive forms and combinations with Participle II should be viewed separately, while a group of linguists insist that the combination “be+PII” should be treated as a Passive form.It causes controversies: some linguists (H&R) are convinced that Pas. Forms and combinations with PII should be viewed separately; other insist that the combination set PII viewed as Passive voice form. e.g. His duty is fulfilled. - some believe that combination of be and PII; - some – compound nominal predicate; - some – it’s an analytical form of Passive Voice. Some say that these are different structures; arguments: the group is fulfilled can’t be treated as the Passive Voice opposeme, because: it doesn’t convey the idea of action, but then off-state the result of an action; the sentence corresponds rather to “he has fulfilled his duty” than to “he fulfills his duty” as the preferable meaning of PII is very prominent. In speech there’s always some sort of an actualizer that reveals the dynamic (that is Pas.) or stative nature of the construction. Some linguists believe there’s the so-called “get voice” in English. It’s true that in some structures the use of “get” contradicts its lexical meaning of attaining. e.g. She got drowned. He got punished “get” – grammar word morpheme part of analytical Passive Voice form it has no lexical, only grammatical meaning. Yet very often the meaning of some activity of achievement on the part of the subject in sentences with “get” construction is strongly… . e.g. He got appointed to the past He did something for that. some lexical meaning should be treated as synonym to the Passive Voice, but not grammatical form of it. It’s one of the lingual means of conveying the meaning of Passive Voice. Some grammarians speak of other voices in English. They believe that in sentences like “He did it himself” or “He cut himself” there’s a special Reflexive (возвратный) Voice. But it’s obvious that the reflexive meaning is conveyed here by the pronoun “himself”. There’s nothing to do with grammatical means. On the same grounds, we should object to the idea of the Reciprocal Voice where reciprocity (взаимность, обоюдность, взаимодействие, взаимный обмен) is conveyed with the help of the reciprocal pronouns “each other” & “one another”, also lexical means. Some (Blokh) speak of the Middle Voice in English. e.g. The new paper bags are selling accidentally. It can be viewed as an example of the neutralization of the Voice opposition. That’s the unmarked member performs the functions of the marked one. There’re free variants. Unmarked – “selling”, marked – “is sold” (function). There’s a limit of verbs that has similar properties: e.g. the door open (urgarive verbs, function – active, meaning – Passive); the dress washes well; the book is printing. These cases can be reviewed as the metaphor. Views of the active voice forms | The verb. The category of aspect. The category of aspect In present day English is a system of 2-member opposeme (“reads – is reading”, “read – was reading”, etc.) showing the character of the action that is whether the action is in its process, development (continuous aspect) or it’s simply started and it’s nature is not specified (non-continuous aspect). The marked member denotes a particular action in progress, the unmarked reveals the nature of the action unspecified. A number of views on the category of aspect: 1) Aspect is viewed as the category of semantics rather than a grammatical category; 2) Aspect is not recognized at all; 3) Aspect is blended with tense and regarded as a part of the tense aspect system; 4) Aspect and tense are recognized as 2 distinct grammatical categories. The tense of the verb shows the time of the action, while the aspect of a verb deals with the development of the action. With regard to the category of aspect verbs divide into those that have aspect opposites and those that don’t: Verbs presenting diverse relations as actions; e.g. belong, contain, consist, possess, resemble. Certain link verbs mostly with idea of seeing; e.g. appear, look, see, turn out, prove. Verbs that denote physical perception; e.g. smell, see, hear, feel. Mental perceptions; e.g. believe, hate, trust, understand. Point action verbs denoting instant (dislike) acts or very short… unless such acts are repeated: clunk, drop, pick up, burst (the meaning is different when used in Continuous). Some treat aspect as a semantic rather than grammatical category there’re different types of aspect: depending on the aspective nature: --beginning of action; --ending; --contrast; --repeated. 2. Terminate Aspect (e.g. He went to town.), Ingressive Aspect points to the beginning of the action (e.g. He began to speak.), the Effective Aspect – the conclusion of the action (e.g. The orchestra ceased playing.), Durative Aspect (e.g. He still works here. They’re having breakfast), Iterative Aspect (habit, character, behavior) – e.g. He would wait for her outside the office every day. !!! Nothing to do with morphemes – only semantics. Some grammarians treat Continuous aspect forms as the Progressive Tense forms (Past Progressive, Future Progressive) presenting actions as simultaneous with some other actions or situations. But if we compare 2 forms “danced – was dancing”, it’s obvious that they’re not opposed as Tense forms since both refer to Past time. On the other hand, the principle of mutual exclusiveness of categorical meanings doesn’t allow for one form carrying more than one meaning of the s. category the term “Past Progressive Tense” wouldn’t be contradictory suggesting that one verbal form carries 2 tense meanings. Compare “did – was doing” both refer to the past. Tense and Aspect are two distinct grammatical categories. List of verbs not used in Continuous Aspect exists, though there’re a lot of examples that contradict it. E.g. You look well. = You’re looking well.
| Types of phrases and their classification. THE PHRASE There are different approaches to the definition of a phrase. Some believe it can consist only notional words. But majority says that a phrase is any syntactically organized group of words (between the words there’re certain syntactic relations). e.g. In the room (=a phrase) The phrase is characterized by the following features: The main semantics of the phrase is not a mere sum of the meaning of its components, it’s a complex combination of the lexical meaning of the elements combined and is determined by the following factors: the semantics of components and their order. e.g. keg beer – beer keg; teacher school – school teacher; rose garden – garden rose. by the interrelations between the meanings of the components – semantic dependence. e.g. a fish salad – a fish knife (the relations are different) Horse shoes (подковы) – alligator shoes. According to the ways in which phrases are used and constituted, we distinguish between 2 types: exocentric (non-headed) and endocentric (headed). Phrases that belong to the same form class as one or both of its components are endocentric. All the grammatical functions of the endocentric phrase can be exercised by one or both of its components that can be substituted for a whole phrase. The classification is based on the functioning of the phrase in a larger structure (sentence) and doesn’t take into account its inner arrangement (Leonard Gloom). e.g. 1) Poor John ran away. (endocentric, headed phrase); 2) John and Mary ran away. (endocentric, headed); 3) Poor John ran away. (exocentric). The phrase that doesn’t belong to any of the form classes represented by either of its constituents is exocentric. As to the character of the syntactic arrangement phrases fall into 3 groups: subordinate; coordinate; predicative/nexus: In terms of their grammatical organization subordinate phrases are binary structures in which 1 of the components is syntactically leading element of the phrase. No matter how complicated the structure might be, it can always be divided into 2 components/ immediate constituents: functioning as the head/centre/nucleus of the phrase. the modifier/ adjunct (they modify heads). e.g. a little boy (my shoes); played volleyball; wrote a letter; awfully tired; rose garden. According to their inner structure subordinate phrases are divided into: -regressive in which the modifiers are to the left of the head. e.g. my shoes, rather boring, to always remember. (modifier) -progressive in which modifiers are to the right of the head. e.g. wrote a letter, a list of names, heard of it. There’re also subordinate phrases in which the head is framed on both sides by modifiers. e.g. a folded sheet of paper, no particular connections elsewhere. Coordinate phrases consist of 2 or more syntactically equivalent units joined in a cluster which functions as a single unit. The components so joined can be any of the parts of speech. or more complex structures that take part in the grammatical organization. The joining can be accomplished either by word order and prosody (intonation) alone or with the help of conjunctions. e.g. John and Mary (with a conjunction). John, Mary, Kate, Michael ( with word order and intonation). Predicative/nexus phrases comprise 2 interdependent constituents, both participating in expressing predicativity, that is the relation of the content of the utterance to the situation of speech or to the reality. Between the components – predicative relations: Personal component (subject, secondary subject) + 2-tense or mood component (predicative or secondary predicative). There are different types of predicative phrases: nexus with a finite verb; e.g. the dog barks; I like dancing. 2) there’re infinitival nexuses; e.g. I heard her sing. 3) nexus object; e.g. I found the room empty, etc. (nexus subjunct, substantive, without verbs). SUBORDINATE PHRASES Can be classified as to the parts of speech the leading element belongs to. There are noun, verbal, adjectival, adverbial etc. subordinate phrases. Subordinate noun phrases (the head=noun). e.g. a handsome boy. Adjectival subordinate phrase e.g. very interesting. Adverbial e.g. very quickly. Verbal e.g. to go quickly. Noun phrases can be either regressive (with pre-post modifier) and progressive (with post-post modifier) phrases. Modifiers can be: adjectives, pronouns, numerals preposition, participle (e.g. crying boy), gerunds (e.g. walking stick), nouns in the Possessive Case (e.g. mother’s shoes), nouns in the Common Case (e.g. table tennis). Noun adjunct groups Post-positive position of the modifier is observed in the following cases: Fixed phrases with adjectives; e.g. president elect, time immemonal, attorney general, court marshal, battle royal, etc.). Phrases containing adjectives with dependent elements; e.g. rooms large enough, a wall 6 feet high, applicants desirous of personal interviews. Phrases in which modifiers are expressed by prepositional groups; e.g. a man of strong will; a device for measuring pressure. Phrases with cardinal numerals that indicate order. e.g. page 23, room 48. Noun adjunct groups Noun adjunct group – pre-modification of nouns (a rose garden, a teacher school). Premodificaions of nouns by nouns can have a variety of meanings: -subject-predicate relations (e.g. temperature change temperature changed; blood pressure, etc.) Very close to this type are structures like: a lady-journalist, a woman-scientist, a green bee. The two elements in these patterns are syntactically equal and each of the 2 nouns can function to name a person or a thing denoted by the whole phrase. -object relations (co-production, package delivery, etc.) Inside this group we can distinguish some sub-group, e.g. so called, with-nominals in which the modified noun denotes instrumental relation (e.g. oil painting, acid treatment treatment with acid (обработка кислотой)); the off-phrase periphrasis, or qualitative genitive (e.g. child psychology psychology typical for children); the off-phrase periphrasis in which the modified noun denotes the material (a gold watch, oak table; strawberry jam, fish pie, vanilla ice-cream, brick house).
- adverbial relation of different kinds: of time (summer holidays, autumn weather); of place (London Zoo, country air, Kharkiv hospital); of comparison (iron nerves, stone heart; light speed; monkey smile); of purpose (bath towel; peace movement). THE VERB PHRASES Verbs express meanings of occurrence (action, event, state of affairs). A verbal idea can be extended by: a) adverbs & adverbial phrases (e.g. speaking loudly, speaking in a low voice); b) adjectives and adjectival phrases (e.g. stood pale with anger, came in happy); c) prepositional groups (stay in London, do in half an hour, etc.); d) infinitives. Infinitival modifiers can express: adverbial relations. In this case they are transformed into patterns like “in order to”+ infinitive, “so as”+ infinitive, or subordinate clauses of purpose or time. e.g. he paused to see what was happening he posed so as to see what was happening. Brian laughed to think of it he laughed when he thought of it. succession of actions. In this case the verb phrases can be transformed into coordinate finite verb forms. e.g. she awoke to find that she was alone. she awoke and found that she was alone. -- participles I and II can modify verbs (e.g. came in smiling (p.I), returned surprised greatly (p.II)); -- subclauses (patterns with the conjunctions as if, as though, etc.) e.g. stopped so as to see everything, etc. Coordinate phrases – joined syndetically(with conjunctions) and asyndetically(no conjuncit_. Syndatic coordinate phrases – the components are joined with function words (coordinators). As to their structural characteristics and position, conjunctive words are subdivided into 3 groups: and, but, or, nor, etc. – they are generally placed between the elements they join. (black or white, tea or coffee, etc.) as well as, rather than, together with, along with, - they are placed between the elements they join, but sometimes can be found in split structures. (e.g. clever as well as beautiful, would rather die than submit); both… and, either… or, neither.. nor, not only… but also, - used in split structures, each before the noun they join (both girls and boys, either today or tomorrow). It’s common that the components of coordinate phrases belong to the same part of speech, but there are cases when different parts of speech are joined in a coordinate phrase. Poly-syndeton – stylistic purposes. Asyndeton – joining with the help of word order or intonation. End of phrase theory.
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| The sentence, its features. Classification of sentences. THE SENTENCE The sentence as a language sign is characterized by 3 aspects: pragmatics; semantics; structure. Pragmatically, the sentence is the smallest unit of communication. Semantically, the sentence denotes a certain situation, which is actualized, that is referred to reality. This actualization, as a syntactic phenomenon, is called predicativity and is formed by the categories of tense and mood. Structurally, sentences are based on certain patterns, the number of which in each language is definite and specific. The sentence can be defined as the basic syntactical unit, used in the act of speech communication characterized by predicativity and realizing a certain structural pattern. The sentence is the basic, but not the largest syntactical unit (the largest – the text). The 3 aspects of the sentence determine the 3 criteria for sentence classification. The structural classification of sentences proceeds from the type from the character of their predicativity. As much as sentences differ as to the way of the reference of their contents to reality (that is the type of predicativity), they have different structural distinction. The questions: how the content can be related to reality? Declarative sentences (differ according to the type of predicativity and their structural features). They assert or deny something. e.g. I like oranges. I don’t agree with you. II. Interrogative sentences ask a question. 2 main types: sentences that require to express a certain thought, to confirm or negate what has been asked by the speaker. (e.g. Are you Jack? Do you like it? – Rather.) Formal characteristic of this type: intonation (rising tone – ascending intonation (do you like it?)), the absence of interrogative pronouns. sentences that require additional intonation about the thing asked. They show what info is required and refer to all parts of sentences. Characteristics: falling tone (descending intonation), interrogative pronouns. e.g. What did you read in this book? Alternative questions belong to the sub-types A and B. Imperative sentences express requests that in different contexts can range from categorial order to entreaty (мольба). Usually the situation signals the meaning. Some linguist distinguish so-called exclamatory sentences, because they believe these sentences possess peculiar structural types in English. (e.g. contain a (What a nice weather!, such…, so…). Classification of sentences according to their grammatical structure. Classification of the sentences With account of their grammatical structure, the sentences can be: - Simple and composite (compound and complex) sentences complete & incomplete (or elliptical); 1-member (single nucleus) and 2-member sentences. The 3 classifications are based on different approaches to the structural organization of sentences and reflect their different The difference between the simple and the composite sentences is that the former contain only 1 subject-predicate unit and the latter contain more than 1 predicative center. The difference between compound and composite is in the relations between the clauses that constitute them. Compound – the clauses are equal, composite – 1 principal clause + at least 1 subordinate. Complete and incomplete sentences are distinguished by the presence or absence of word forms in the principal positions of 2-member sentences. In a complete sentence both the principle positions are filled with word forms. In an incomplete sentence 1 or both of principal positions (subject, predicate) are not filled with word forms. Though these positions are not filled, they can be easily restored, they do not carry any new information, they are called redundant elements. Ellipsis refers only to the structural elements of the sentence, not the informational ones. It means that those words can be omitted, because they have only grammatical structural relevance. Also they do not carry any new relevant information. The types of the elliptical sentence: - without a word form in the subject position (e.g. Looks like rain, seems difficult); - in the subject position and part of the predicate position. It can be an auxiliary or a link verb (e.g. Free this evening?=Are you free this evening? Going to the theatre tonight?=Are you going to the theatre tonight?); - part of the predicate position – either an auxiliary or a link (e.g. You sure? You hear? You seen them?); - both, in the subject and the predicate position. This type of ellipsis appears in responses (e.g. What are you thinking about? – You.). - in the predicate position (e.g. Who lives here? – Jack.) 1-member and 2-member sentences are distinguished by the number of principal parts they contain. 2-member sentences have 2 principal parts that is the subject and the predicate. 1-member sentence has only 1 principal part which is neither the subject, nor the predicate. They can be of two types – nominal (those in which the principal part is expressed by a noun) and verbal (those in which the principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the verb: either an infinitive or a gerund). Nominal state the existence of the things expressed in them, usually they are used in descriptions and very often a paragraph starts with a 1-member sentence (e.g. Silence. Summer. Midnight). This type is called unextended – no secondary parts. Extended – e.g. long evening. Verbal. Infinitival and gerundial phases are typical of expressing of different perceptions of reality. E.g. Just to think of that (infinitival); Living in these awful conditions (gerundial).
| The predicate. Its classification. The Predicate It denotes the action or property of the person or thing, expressed by the subject. Predicates can be classified: according to their structure; according to their morphological composition. According to their structure, predicates can be either simple or compound. Simple are expressed by 1 notional verb (e.g. I love fishing.), compound are expressed by a combination of semi-notional (e.g. It smells good. I was tired. They continued playing. You must do it). Analytical verb forms function as grammatical verb morphemes (e.g The work will have been finished – simple predicate). According to morphological composition, predicates can be either nominal (have nominal parts of speech in their composition – nouns, pronouns, numerals, etc.) or verbal (expressed with verbs). e.g. She is a student. = nominal predicate The work will have been finished = simple verbal predicate. Hence (SRTUCTURE + MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION), grammarians distinguish the following types of predicate: 1 SIMPLE VERBAL PREDICATE: I have been living in Kharkiv for 25 years. 2 SIMPLE NOMINAL PREDICATE (not all grammarians distinguish this type of predicate She – clever? (she cant be clever) He – a gentleman? (no link verbs, convey the idea of the incompatibility of what is expressed by a subject and a predicate) 3 COMPOUND VERBAL PREDICATE compound verbal phasal predicate = a phasal verb + infinitive/gerund. They started dancing. The baby keeps crying. They went on talking. compound verbal modal predicate = modal + notional verb You should go there. You must do it. You ought to do it. compound verbal predicate of double orientation She is said to be the best student in the group. (to be the best student in the group= the state; is said = the action). 4 COMPOUND NOMINAL PREDICATE = link verb (to be, to feel, to get) + predicative (can be either a noun, an adjective, a pronoun or a numeral) It is getting(link) dark(predicative) quickly. She is eight. (predicative here is numeral)
According to Hymovich & Rogovskaya, there are some other types of predicates: - The phraseological predicate comprises a noun with the meaning of an action and a transitive verb. (e.g. He gave a laugh. They had a smoke. They paid a visit.) These combinations are distinguished as a separate type of predicate due to their grammatical meaning (actions of short duration, momentary actions – the grammatical meaning that cannot be expressed with the help of morphological category of aspect). - The contaminative predicate (= совмещение). Contaminates the features of the simple verbal predicate and compound nominal predicate. Structures like: She returned tired. (=When she returned, she was tired) He married young. (=When he was young, he got married) The moon rose red. (=When the moo This type of predicate can be transformed (see examples). Secondary parts of the sentence They are classified according to the syntactic relations between the sentence elements. Secondary parts of the sentence develop the core of the communicative unit as being: immediately related to some of the sentence elements (that is the subject, the predicate, the object, etc) related to the predicative core as a whole. The closet bond (connection) is usually observed in attributive relationships (1st type). Attributes expand sentence elements rather than the sentence itself (modify subject or object). The second type of non-predicative bond is the completive bond (2nd type), it is more loose. In this type of bond, the secondary parts relate to the predicative core as a whole. Copulative bond (3rd type) connects syntactically equivalent sentence elements (that is homogeneous parts of the sentence). E.g. With the money earned, he bought novels, dictionaries and maps.
| The composite sentence. Types of composite sentences. THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE Simple sentence – has 1 predicative center (1 subject-predicate group) Composite – poly-predicative. A composite sentence is a structural and semantic unity of 2 or more syntactic constructions, each with its own predicative center, based on a certain syntactic bond, and used a unit of speech communication. It consists of 2 or more clauses (either subordinate or coordinal) The organization of composite sentences is determined by the following factors: the type of syntactic relationship (subordinate and principal clause, coordinal (equal) clauses) there is also a mixed type (subordinate + coordinate clauses). The rank of predicative constructions Optional or obligatory character of clauses (whether they are optional in the structure or not) The presence or absence of linking elements and their character The succession of predicative constructions. The first 2 factors are the most important, and with the help of them, complex sentences are divided into: COMPOUND and COMPLEX. Compound are structures of coordination with 2 or more clauses which are syntactically equivalent. e.g. I like playing cards and my friend likes playing football. The wind had cleared the mist, the autumn leaves were rustling, and the stars were shining. Complex sentences are structures of subordination with 2 or more clauses which are not syntactically equivalent. One of them is a principal clause, and other clauses are joined to it as subordinates. They are considered to be adjuncts to the main clause. Subordinate clauses in complex sentences are correlative with parts of the sentence, but, unlike the latter, they express the idea of the object, quality or circumstances by way of a certain situation which finds its expression in a subject-predicate structure. There are the following types of subordinate clauses: -Subject subordinate clauses. e.g. Who did it is still to be found out. (is still to be found out – principal clause) The functions of a subject are performed by a subordinate clause, that has its own subject and predicate. -Predicative clauses e.g. The rule here is that you must never be late. (the clause performs the function of predicative in relation to the main clause) Is – a notional verb only when it denotes location (e.g. I am here). -Object clauses e.g. You can do whatever you like. -Attributive clause e.g. A woman who can’t cook is not a woman. This is a kind of job I’d like. -Adverbial clauses e.g. He did not say a word till he was asked. (of time) They don’t have long intervals, like they do at other theatres. (of comparison) If anything troubles you, you better tell me. (of condition)
What I need is a piece of good advice. – the subjective subordinate clause (what I need) She looks as if she were ill. – the predicative subordinate clause (looks – link verb) The problem is not who will go, but who will stay. – a predicative subordinate clause. Although the weather was bad, he went for a walk. – adverbial of concession. It appears, he hasn’t been there. – a predicative subordinate clause. I’m sorry I talk the way I did at lunch. – (I did at lunch) – of manner She cooks the turkey exactly as my mother does. – adverbial of manner
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Методика преподавания английского языка (468.5 KB)
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