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Ассоциация учителей английского языка Московской области (АУЯМО)
МОУ ДПО «Информационно - методический центр»
Комитета по образованию Администрации г. о. Подольск
МОУ «Средняя общеобразовательная школа № 34» г. о. Подольск
VI региональная научно-творческая конференция
«Путешествие в мир
историко-культурного наследия англоговорящих стран»
СЕКЦИЯ исследовательские проекты по страноведению
Тема работы
The English Inn as the Second Home of an Englishman and as the Reflection of the English National Character
Возрастная категория:
Старшее звено 9-11 классы
Работу выполнили:
Внукова Алина Ильинична
Кустенков Александр Александрович
9 класс, АОНО «Частный Лицей «ЭКУС»
Научный руководитель:
Боровикова Нина Анатольевна
учитель английского языка
АОНО «Частный Лицей «ЭКУС»
Городской округ Подольск
2019 г.
Contents:
1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………3
2. The history of the inn’s beginning and its development ………………………3
3. A landlord as an important feature of an inn …………………………………..6
4. Associations connected with English inns …………………………….……….7
5. Customs and traditions .……………………………………………………….. 8
6. Inns’ signs as the reflection of the English character …………………………. 9
7. Inns’ signs as part of the English national history …………………………….11
8. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….....12
9. References ……………………………………………………………..……....14
1. Introduction
This work has been done and the project is written with the purpose of investigation of one of the most interesting spheres of English life which researches an English inn that always has been the home of every man, from the sovereign to his meanest person and everything connected with it: the history of the inn’s beginning, customs and traditions, its reflection in the literature, inn’s signs and the history and meanings of these signs.
At the same time the research has been led to reveal the mystery of the English national character through the history and meaning of an English inn.
2. The history of the inn’s beginning and its development
To investigate the English inn is almost to investigate England itself, so closely the inn is connected with the daily life of the men of every degree, and with the gradual development of the land.
The English expert of the English inns Thomas Burke remarks in his works that though the birth of the English inn cannot be documented, we may say with certainty that when the first fifty miles of road was cut through England the first English inn was built.
Like the English houses and the English government the inn has always reflected the temper and tastes of the time, and the old inns that remain to us are as valuable historical monuments as English castles and abbeys.
We know nothing of the English very earliest inns. The story of those British, Roman and Saxon inns is buried with their fragments. Only in the fourteenth century the Englishmen began to get, in picture and word, a rare glimpse of what the inn then was and the nature of its life.
The English inn has developed from the style it first took; a replica of the English home of each period. In the centuries before the railway, every man who travelled twenty miles from his home had need of its services, and it was to the innkeeper’s interest to provide them not worse but even better than those of the traveller’s own house. Mostly he did, and that is why today the old inn is often the noblest building of its town or district and in many cases the only feature worth travelling to see.
By their lifelong aim to keep up with the times, the English old inns now afford examples of the architecture of many centuries. In them we see the ages pressing upon each other in the form of relics of the loving craft of the days when men were proud to use their hands - thirteenth-century stonework, a fourteenth-century king-post; a stately staircase or Tudor panelling; carved ceilings; an Oriel window; a Tompion clock; a decorated fireplace and overmantel; a musicians’ gallery - as fine, in each example, as any to be found in the great private mansions.
The oldest of the English still-existing inns are those which originally were Pilgrim’s inns or Maisons Dieu. In the early days nobody travelled for pleasure or for the delight of looking upon rural scenery. Only serious temporal or spiritual business took them out. The great majority never left their home-town in a life-time, and those of the ordinary people who made a journey made only a rare pilgrimage to the shrine of some saint. The regular travellers - the chapmen, packhorse men, messengers and vagrants - were served by hostels supported by the Church, where the very poor were given hospitality for two nights without charge. Those hostels mostly stood in the precincts of the abbey or cathedral, or just outside the gates of the town, where shelter of some sort was necessary since at nightfall the gates were irrevocably shut till dawn. Of this class of still-existing inns are the “George”, Glastonbury; the “Falstaff”, Canterbury; the “Star”, Alfriston; the “New Inn”, Glouster; the “Angel”, Grantham; the “Pilgrim’s Rest”, Battle.
The accommodation they offered was lent in its simplicity. The floors were of stone or earth, strewn with rushes, and the bedroom was a room common for both sexes, fitted with a number of pallets. Even in the regular inns of the fourteenth century, where charges were made, the accommodation was not much better, and there was no fixed arrangement for meals. Whatever was needed was specially prepared and cooked. Every guest brought or purchased his own food, and gave his own directions for its dressing. In the better inns of the larger towns the host sometimes kept a table, and guests had the choice of taking their meal with him or of ordering to their own fancy and dining in their own rooms. Chaucer, in his Prologue to “the Canterbury Tales”, shows us the group of pilgrims supping at the host’s table, and gives us a picture of the host which is a picture of any good innkeeper of today.
The fifteenth century saw an increase of travel and an increase in the number and quality of inns. Some of the most gracious inns of today owe their graciousness to the portions that are of that period or earlier. Among them are “the Luttrell Arms”, Dunster; “the Swan”, Minster Lovell; “the Lion”, Buckden and others.
Those of the sixteenth century showed still further improvements in their appointments and conduct. The only London example still to be seen of a galleried inn of this period is “the George”, Southwark, founded in 1554. Many inns whose main structure is of the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries date back, so far as their sites and foundations, to even earlier times, though not all of them were originally built as inns.
By the end of the sixteenth century, carpets had been introduced and the walls of the best rooms were hung with tapestry or embossed leather. The host kept a generous table, and the food, drawn largely from local woods and rivers, was more various and particular than the standardised meals of the inns of our own time. If the kitchens of those inns were without some of the imported foods that we know, they used many that we have forgotten or never heard of.
The seventeenth century, which brought the coach, brought a still further increase in the number of inns, and many inns which today are historic treasures then opened their doors for the first time. The best of these were originally the private mansions of wealthy merchants of the time - as “the Feathers”, Ludlow; “the Lygon Arms”, Broadway, “the Ship”, Mere.
As the seventeenth-century inn shows us the best domestic building of its time, so does the eighteenth. Satisfying examples of the square box of deep-red-brick and white window-frames are “the Lion”, Shrewsbury; “the Crown”, Bawty; “the White Horse”, Ipswich; “the Red Lion”, High Wycombe. Some of these are of an earlier date. Since the inn throughout its life has constantly re-constructed itself to keep up with the times, many old inns at that modernized themselves by putting on a Georgian apron.
Sometimes this reconstruction has been done without need or reason and with unhappy results. In some of the English old inns nineteenth-century wall-paper has been covering old linen-fold panelling; false whitewashed ceilings covering seventeenth-century plaster-moulding. Each generation has added a wing here or a floor there, so that often you find a nineteenth-century facade, eighteenth-century cellar, and a twentieth-century kitchen and dance-floor.
The first thirty years of the nineteenth century gave the inn its highest time of activity and growth, and its largest tribute of appreciation. Coach travel and post-chaise travel was at its peak. The inns were crowded and were alive with a warm bustle night and day. New wings were added, stabling was enlarged; post-boys worked in relays through the twenty-four hours; the kitchen fire was never out, and bells were always ringing.
Increase of business brought new customs. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the inn had had no common dining-room. Each party dined in a private room, distinguished not by a colourless number but by some fanciful name - the Rose, the Sun, the Fleur-de-Lys. The poorest travellers dined in the kitchen. But with the turn of the century, the Tudor and Stuart custom of a common table was revived for the coach-breakfast and the coach-dinner. Resident guests or those travelling by their own post-chaises, still dined in private, but the ordinary traveller took his place at the big dining-room or coffee-room table, and dined on the dished of the day. The modern custom of one common dining-room set with separate tables didn’t come into use till mid-Victorian times.
But just when the main-road inn was enjoying such business as it had never known before, and when new inns were being built along the new coach-routes, disaster arrived. The railway came and brought with it, for hundreds of noble inns, ruin. It made its own road. It touched many towns off the coaching routes, and ignored many of the then-prosperous highway-towns. The realist innkeepers closed their doors and sold up. As, in the seventeenth century, to meet the demand for accommodation, many private mansions become inns, so, a hundred years ago, with the withdrawal of the demand, many of the famous Georgian inns became private residence or farm-houses. The old inn was dead, and would never be seen again.
In its place arrived something that was quite out of the tradition and that, even with the popular passion of the time for the innovation, never succeeded in winning the affection won by the inn. It had all the faults of the old inn and none of its graces. It was called the Railway Hotel, and it sprang up outside every important railway station. It did not have a long life. It was soon displaced in its turn by the great, solid, ugly but comfortable modern inn or hotel in the centre of the town.
But the old inns were not dead; they were only in a long sleep, and towards the end of the century they awoke. The cycle and the car reopened the road, and the inn was reborn, and with all those pleasures that belong to it. Some of the private mansions which, centuries ago, had become inns and, with the decay of the road, had reverted to privacy, made one more change and again became inns.
3. A landlord as an important feature of an inn
The old inn is not an antiquarian exhibit, not a frozen relic of the past. It lives in one long continuous Present. Its guests from time to time change their clothes and their ways of speech and their tastes in food, but they are one string of guests, and any landlord of the past, if he could look around the dining-room of an inn of today, would recognise the same type as he had known in his own days. The atmosphere of any inn that we are enjoying was made by them, as we helping to make it for those who follow us.
The most important feature of an inn, more important than its age, its architectural grace, its oak beams, its yard or even its kitchen, is its landlord. A landlord of the wrong type can ruin the most fortunate inn. The comfort of the guests is in the hand of the staff, and the members of the staff of an inn always take their note from the landlord. If he is temperamentally unsuited to innkeeping, no amount of willing service from the staff, or of his own energy, organising ability or business acumen will bring him success. He must not enter it as men enter other business - purely for profit. He must enter it as a vocation, because he loves it and has pride in it and in his house and his story.
Innkeeping, from its very beginning, was recognised as something more than a trade. It was seen as an honourable calling, and the good innkeeper was expected to have the grace of the good private host, to be not a shopkeeper but a householder entertaining, if not angels unawares, at least honest fellow - creatures in need of pleasant treatment as well as sustenance and shelter. The first innkeeper sketched for us is the host of the Southwark “Tabard”. Chaucer’s “Tabard”, which was to be seen, or parts of it, in Borough High Street as late as 1880, was the most noted of the many inns outside the gate of London Bridge, and its owner was the most noted of Southwark’s innkeepers. Chaucer’s picture was not a lively piece of fancy; it was a sketch from the life. Henry Bailly was the actual host of the “Tabard” in Chaucer’s time. He was, as the good innkeeper should be, and as Chaucer sketches him, a man fit to take his place in any company - “a seemly man” - “bold of his speech and wise and well taught” - “a merry man”.
An innkeeper of equal standing and consequence was the keeper of “the Swan”, at Stafford, where according to his own story in “The Romany Rye”, George Borrow worked for a time:
He knew his customers, and had a calm clear eye which would look through a man without seeming to do. The accommodation of his house was of the very best description; his wines were good, his viands equally so, and his charges not immoderate; though he very properly took care of himself. He was no vulgar innkeeper, had a host of friends, and deserved them all. During the time I lived with him, he was presented by a large essemblage of his friends and customers with a dinner at his own house, which was very costly, and at which the best of wines were sported, and after the dinner with a piece of plate estimated at fifty guineas. He received the plate, made a neat speech of thanks, and when the bill was called for, made another neat speech in which he refused to receive one farthing for the entertainment, ordering in at the same time two dozen more of the best champagne.
Many innkeepers in provincial towns were members of the local Council, sometimes Mayors or J.P.’s. Always they took a prominent part in local functions, sports, charities, and so on.
A famous host of the North country not only achieved the friendship of poets in his lifetime, but earned the distinction of having his epitaph written by a poet after his death. This was Anthony Wilson, host of “the Swan” at Grasmere, who died in 1831. Wordsworth knew him and makes reference, in one of his many moments, to his amateur attempts at painting his own sign:
Who does not know the famous “Swan”,
Object uncouth, and yet our boast,
For it was painted by the host.
His own conceit the figure planned,
‘Twas coloured all by his own hand.
Though innkeeping closely touches domesticity, the women innkeepers were few. In the middle of the twentieth century a new type of an innkeeper appeared in England, and running an inn was adopted as a profession by men who had been figures of other professions. Like the enlightened innkeepers of the past, they still keep maintaining the best traditions of the inn, and giving it new life and a new store of honest principles.
4. Associations connected with English inns
The inn is, and always has been, the home of Everyman, from the sovereign to his meanest subject. And in the past the sovereign was a frequent patron. Sometimes he held Court at an inn; sometimes he made it his headquarters in battle; sometimes he dined at it and sometimes caroused in it. Elizabeth I could hardly have slept in all the inns with which legend associates her name, nor would she have needed so.
But other sovereigns did in times of necessity make use of the inn. Richard III, in 1483, made :the Angel” at Grantham his headquarters, and there, in a room that may still be seen, he signed the death-warrant of Buckingham. At “the Saracen’s Head”, Southwell, Charles I lodged himself when he decided to make the best of a bad dilemma and surrender himself not to the Parliament but to the leaders of the Scotch army. There, in a room in which you yourself may sleep, he slept his last night as a free man, and in what is now the coffee-room he surrendered to the Scotch commissioners who, for a price, handed him over to the Parliamentary Army. At “the George”, Stamford, one thinks at once of Walter Scott, who regularly stopped there on his journeys to and from the North. The inn at Burford Bridge brings a cluster of memories - Nelson taking his last farewell of Emma Hamilton; Stevenson plotting a romance of the road.
5. Customs and traditions
The English inns are linked with English life, English people. That’s why the more we learn about inns, the more we learn about customs connected with them and revealing the mystery of the English character. Since the English inns are current facts, customs also change as well as fashions and material appointments.
It was once the custom for the host to be in a very real sense the host of a lonely traveller, to greet him on arrival, farewell him on departure, and, on Sunday, accompany him to church and dine him with the family.
Today the English notion of a good host is one who leaves his guests alone, even to the point of being invisible. If the host did not personally greet his guests, it was the custom in many inns for the chambermaid to take to his room, as a welcome to the House, a complimentary glass of sherry or Madeira.
Another old custom was that of giving the newly-arrived guest a Serenade by the inn’s tame musician. Today the only serenade the guest receives is a hint from the lounge-waiter that he wants to go to bed, and he is awakened by the more agreeable means of Early Tea.
One very old custom has lately been revived. The earliest interludes and plays, in the days before theatres, were given in inn-yards, and in the eighteenth century strolling players visiting a small town usually gave their show in the Assembly Room of the chief inn; and at the beginning of the twentieth century some of the first film-shows that country towns saw were given in the public rooms of inns. “The Greyhound” at Croydon has as part of its premises a theatre, and just before the war there was a movement for giving Poetry Recitals in inns and public-houses. During the World War II, Hours of Music with distinguished soloists were given at “the White Horse”, Dorking.
A prominent feature of all the inns of the nineteenth century was the Visitors’ Book. Today, the official Register, ordained by law, has frozen out the casual and homely Visitors’ Book, and one more link in the personal relations between innkeeper and traveller has been broken. Relations today, rather than those of Host and Guest, are those of Shop and Customer. But the inn follows the spirit of each generation, and the spirit of the inn today is what today’s people have made it. They don’t seem to want personal recognition. They only want impersonal Service. They don’t want an invitation to dine with the landlord as a mark of his esteem. They only want Food.
6. Inns’ signs as the reflection of the English character
The spirit of detachment is not really the true English spirit. The accepted figure of the Englishman as a man of marble face and stiff back which no joy or grief can melt or bend, is pure fantasy, a piece of conscious acting.
The Englishman by nature is an intensely emotional creature, as anybody knows who has had to attend a race-meeting, a football match, the last hour of a cricket match. He is not unemotional. He is only consciously refraining from displaying emotion. That is why the modern face is so nervous and drawn. In the past, when English friends met, they flung their arms about each other. When they hated, they let everybody know it instead of bottling it up. When they were happy they laughed and sang. In their own or another’s sorrow, they wept - and were all the better for it.
The inn itself affords evidence that the English are people of warm feelings. They could not, if they were detached, frigid things they try to be, have invested their inns and taverns with such a collection of legends and tales.
In the days when few people could read, the sign was necessary to trade, and shops proclaimed their business by a model of what they had to sell or by a picture of some associated symbol or badge. When, with the spread of learning, and the naming and numbering of streets, the sign was no longer necessary, it was generally thrown away. The inn alone retained this form of identification. It has never effaced itself in an impersonal street number, and innkeepers have always jealously guarded their right to a particular sign, and have always given much thought and fancy to their signboards and supports, and made them familiar and welcome features of the highway and main streets.
The Englishman’s humour is the puzzle to all foreigners. The Englishman delights in private jokes to which nobody but himself has the key, and in his great affection to poetry of nonsense and in naming his inns he reveals his real character. Do not believe all the explanations of those lunatic signs you read. The explanations were manufactured: the inn signs were not.
You may be told that such a sign as “the Pig and Whistle” is a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon “Pige Washael”. The first innkeeper who named his house “the Pig and Whistle” undoubtedly did so, either because the combination tickled his nerve of idiocy, or because he saw that it would bring questioning customers.
The English ancient landlords were truly hosts of furious fancies (one of them must have been aware of this: at Redbourn there is a “Mad Tom”); and the more we go inning the farther we penetrate into that glorious mad world of emotion and sentiment: “The Rent Day”; “The Struggle”; “The Man in the Moon”; “Our Mutual Friend”; “The Civil Usage”; “The Foaming Jug”; “You Might As Well”; “No Hurry”; “The Merry Month of May”; “The Sea Horse”; “The Ship and Turtle”; “The Barge Aground”; “The Black Boy and Stomach-Ache”; “The Indian Queen”; “The Marvel of Marvels”; “The Bell and Mackerel”; “The Razor and Hen”; “The Flatiron and Frog”; “The Goose and Gridiron”; the “Cat and Bagpipes”; the “Scissors and Pin”; “The Bear and Rummer”; “Uncle Tom’s Cabin”; “The Quiet Woman”; the “Fabby Cat”; the “Book in Hand”; “The Fippling Philosopher”; “The Mortal Man”; “Who’d Have Thought It?”; the “Horn of Plenty”; the “Sun in Splender”; the “Castle of Comfort”; the “World Turned Upside Down”.
The spirit that inspired those signs appeals to all of us, particularly to poets; and one of the best celebrations of them is to be found in a work of a modern poet, the Rev. John Gray.
Here are a few stanzas:
In the Yard
Even, wealthy reader, you
Are fortunate to know a score
The kingdom’s length, from shore to shore
Deserving praise; a little more,
Perhaps, three or two.
And here some are named
Both where you have, and haven’t stayed,
Or where you wouldn’t have delayed
For fifty times the bell you paid
For you were jolly well afraid;
And still feel ashamed.
The Maid’s Head; the Forge;
The Radegonde; the Gallows Inn;
The Salutation; Harlequin;
The Cat Hole Keld; the Trout; the Queen;
The Bladebone; the George.
The Magpie; the Chough;
The Red; the Dun; the Dapple Cow;
The Fish; the Boot and Shoe; the Plough;
The Just in Time; the Barley Mow;
The Woodcock; the Dove.
The Plum Pudding; Wheel;
The Merry Mouth; the Duck; the Fleece;
The Apple, Oak, and Cocoa Trees;
The Hatchet Inn; the Compasses;
And Bells by Rings, and Eights, and Threes,
The Bluebell, the Bell.
And so on and so;
But in the empire of the blest,
Where inns are old and gala-dressed,
Their signs are not among the least
Of good things to know.
The happiest of all signs, we think, a supreme example of fitness for purpose, is one that in three words combines a pun, a statement of fact, and an implied invitation. The landlord who, delving into the greenwood of his fancy for a sign, was given this, deserves to be the saint of English innkeeping. It is “The Open Arms”.
Perhaps it was this excellent fellow who originated the delightful custom of giving names to rooms instead of cold numbers. It is a custom that should have become general, since it gives the guests a pleasing sense of possession, and allows the host still further outlet for his individuality. A few inns still observe it. Sometimes the rooms are flowers; sometimes they are virtues; sometimes they are English kings; at the “Shakespeare Hotel”, at Stradford, the rooms bear the titles of Shakespeare’s plays. How pleasant to go up to bed to the “Merrie Wives”. How pleasant to have the boy enter the lounge with “Ham sandwich for Love-in-a-mist!” or for “William and Mary!” It is pleasant, too, to hear the waiter pass your mineral water-order: “Soda - chilled - for - Midsummer Night’s Dream!”
7. Inns’ signs as part of the English national history
The signs of the English inns are in themselves a fascinating study and much of Britain’s history may be gleaned from them. as well as folklore, heraldry, social customs, etc.
Many are a compliment to the lord of the manor or a nobleman or his cognizance, as the “Warwick Arms”, the “Bear and Ragged Staff”.
Others pay tribute to distinguished warriors or their battles, as “The Marquis of Grandby”, the “Duke of Willington’, the “Waterloo”, the “Keppel’s Head”, the “Trafalgar”.
Royalty is conspicuously represented by the “Crown”, the “King’s Arms”, the “Prince Regent”, the “Prince of Wales”, the “Victoria”, the “Albert”, the “George”, etc.
Literary names are less conspicuous, but there is a “Shakespeare”, “Milton Arms”, “Macaulay Arms”, “Sir Richard Steele”, and “Sir Walter Scott”, as well as “The Miller of Mansfield”, “Pindar of Wakefield”, “Sir John Falstaff”, “Robinson Crusoe”, and “Valentine and Orson”. “Simon and Fanner”, “The Good Samaritan”, “Noah’s Ark”, the “Gospel Oak”, the “Angel” have a Biblical flavour, and myth and legend are represented by “The Apollo”, “Hercules”, “Phoenix”, “King Lud”, “Merlin’s Cave”, ‘The Man in the Moon”, “Punch”, “Robin Hood”, the “Moonrakers”, etc.
Some signs indicate sporting associations, such as the “Cricketers”, the “Bat and Ball”, the “Bowling Green”, the “Angel’s Rest”, the “Huntman”; or trades associations as “Coopers’ ”, “Bricklayers’ ”, “Plumbers’ ”, “Carpenters’ ”, “Masons’ Arms”, etc.
Others show a whimsical turn as “the Who’d Thought It”, “The Five Alls”, “The World Turned Upside Down”, “The Good Woman”.
The following list will serve to exemplify the subject:
“The Cat and Fiddle”. It most probably comes from the nursery rhyme:
Heigh, diddle, diddle.
The cat and the fiddle, etc.
There is a possible reference to the once popular game of tip-cat or trap-ball and the fiddle for a dance that were provided as attractions for customers.
“The Dog and Duck”, or “The Duck in the Pond”, indicating that the sport so called could be seen there. A duck was put into the water, and a dog set to hunt it; the fun was to see the duck diving and the dog following it under water.
“The Five Alls” consists of a king (I rule all), a priest (I pray for all), a soldier (I fight for all), a John Bull or a farmer (I pay for all), and a lawyer (I plead for all).
“The Hole in the Wall”. Perhaps there is an allusion to the hole in the wall of a prison through which the inmates received donations, or a reference to the narrow alley or passage by which the tavern was approached.
“The Red Cow”. Possible because at one time red cows were more esteemed in England than the more common “black”.
“The Rose”. A symbol of England.
“The Running Footman”. It is from the received servant who used to run before the nobleman’s carriage.
8. Conclusion
Thus, on the one hand, inns created by Englishmen greatly reflected the English national character. For example, the English constancy, its traditional conservantism was reflected in nearly eternal existence of an inn that has retained its original character as well as an Englishman in spite of technique progress and the quick current of life.
On the other hand, inns affected Englishmen and formed their national character. Since English inns are current facts, their customs change as well as the English character. There is a good illustration to such a transformation as an image of a lord or an innkeeper from a sociable and open to an invisible person.
It is clearly evident that the revealing of such a closely connection between inns and Englishmen helps us to understand Englishmen better moreover enchances the typical notion of the English national character.
On the face of it it may appear that Englishmen tend to conceal emotions. In reality they wear masks. To discover what is under the mask inns’ signs allow us to peep under the mask.
Finally, the paper proves that an Englishman by nature is an extremely emotional creature. Naturally, only a person who has a great sense of humour, quick wits and lively imagination can invent and create such fantastic and funny signs and such a collection of inn’s legends.
9. References:
Thomas Burke, “English Inns”; London, 1948
The Saracen’s Head Hotel, https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/the-saracens-head
The Pub in Literature, https://teaching.shu.ac.uk/ds/sle/altered/inns/inns.htm
Inns Signs, https://openlibrary.org/subjects/inn_signs
Inn Sign, https://en.wikipedi0.org/wiki/Inn_sign
The Historic Coaching Inns of England, http://allaboutbeer.com/article/the-historic-coaching-inns-of-england/
Inn, https://wiki2.org/en/Inn
Tavern Signs Mark Changes in Travel, Innkeeping and Artistic Practice, https://connecticuthistory.org/tavern-signs-mark-changes-in-travel-innkeeping-and-artistic-practice/
The History of the Inn, https://www.lincolnsinn.org.uk/about-us/the-history-of-the-inn/
The Functions of Inn Signs and their Place in Early Modern British History, https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/cross_fac/iatl/reinvention/issues/volume4issue1/dent
“The Lygon Arms”, Broadway, https://yandex.ru/video/search?filmId=3299963624297659584&text=%E2%80%9Cthe%20Lygon%20Arms%E2%80%9D%2C%20Broadway&ts=1550432919653&source=share
“The Feathers”, Ludlow, https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=5&v=SBRZ7BoPEow
“The George”, Southwark, https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=PV2T_xXqYh8
Medieval Taverns, https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=zpUyJx2RurE
The Story Of English Inns - 1940's British Council Film Collection - CharlieDeanArchives https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UeScbvAy-yc
Researching Historic Buildings in the British Isles, http://www.buildinghistory.org/buildings/inns.shtml
Shakespear at “the New Inn”, Gloucester, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xNVcc9iPugo
“The George and Pilgrims”, Glastonbury, https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=6&v=B6_ztFf8b6M
Pilgrims Rest Battle, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ODQqRp1lPn0
The Canterbury Tales | The Franklin's Prologue and Tale Summary & Analysis | Geoffrey Chaucer
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1&v=3fACA4ILMLI
The “Luttrell Arms”, Dunster, Somerset, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiNdwymhETE
Исследовательский проект по страноведению, представленный на VI региональной научно-творческой конференции «Путешествие в мир историко-культурного наследия англоговорящих стран» (44.59 KB)
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