Human spine. To be going to .

Human spine To be going to

Vertebrae Vertebrae are the 33 individual bones that interlock with each other to form the spinal column. The vertebrae are numbered and divided into regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and coccyx . Only the top 24 bones are moveable; the vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx are fused. The vertebrae in each region have unique features that help them perform their main functions.

Cervical (neck)  - the main function of the cervical spine is to support the weight of the head (about 10 pounds). The seven cervical vertebrae are numbered C1 to C7. The neck has the greatest range of motion because of two specialized vertebrae that connect to the skull. The first vertebra (C1) is the ring-shaped atlas that connects directly to the skull. This joint allows for the nodding or “yes” motion of the head. The second vertebra (C2) is the peg-shaped axis, which has a projection called the odontoid, that the atlas pivots around. This joint allows for the side-to-side or “no” motion of the head.

Thoracic (mid back) - the main function of the thoracic spine is to hold the rib cage and protect the heart and lungs. The twelve thoracic vertebrae are numbered T1 to T12. The range of motion in the thoracic spine is limited.

Lumbar (low back) - the main function of the lumbar spine is to bear the weight of the body. The five lumbar vertebrae are numbered L1 to L5. These vertebrae are much larger in size to absorb the stress of lifting and carrying heavy objects.

Sacrum  - the main function of the sacrum is to connect the spine to the hip bones (iliac). There are five sacral vertebrae, which are fused together. Together with the iliac bones, they form a ring called the pelvic girdle.

Coccyx region  - the four fused bones of the coccyx or tailbone provide attachment for ligaments and muscles of the pelvic floor.

Intervertebral discs Each vertebra in your spine is separated and cushioned by an intervertebral disc, keeping the bones from rubbing together. Discs are designed like a radial car tire. The outer ring, called the annulus, has criss-crossing fibrous bands, much like a tire tread. These bands attach between the bodies of each vertebra. Inside the disc is a gel-filled center called the nucleus, much like a tire tube.

Vertebral arch & spinal canal On the back of each vertebra are bony projections that form the vertebral arch. The arch is made of two supporting pedicles and two laminae (Fig. 5). The hollow spinal canal contains the spinal cord, fat, ligaments, and blood vessels. Under each pedicle, a pair of spinal nerves exits the spinal cord and pass through the intervertebral foramen to branch out to your body.

Facet joints The facet joints of the spine allow back motion. Each vertebra has four facet joints, one pair that connects to the vertebra above (superior facets) and one pair that connects to the vertebra below (inferior facets).

Ligaments

The ligaments are strong fibrous bands that hold the vertebrae together, stabilize the spine, and protect the discs. The three major ligaments of the spine are the ligamentum flavum, anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL), and posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL) . The ALL and PLL are continuous bands that run from the top to the bottom of the spinal column along the vertebral bodies. They prevent excessive movement of the vertebral bones. The ligamentum flavum attaches between the lamina of each vertebra.

Spinal nerves Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves branch off the spinal cord. The spinal nerves act as “telephone lines,” carrying messages back and forth between your body and spinal cord to control sensation and movement. Each spinal nerve has two roots. The ventral (front) root carries motor impulses from the brain and the dorsal (back) root carries sensory impulses to the brain. The ventral and dorsal roots fuse together to form a spinal nerve, which travels down the spinal canal, alongside the cord, until it reaches its exit hole - the intervertebral foramen. Once the nerve passes through the intervertebral foramen, it branches; each branch has both motor and sensory fibers. The smaller branch (called the posterior primary ramus) turns posteriorly to supply the skin and muscles of the back of the body. The larger branch (called the anterior primary ramus) turns anteriorly to supply the skin and muscles of the front of the body and forms most of the major nerves.

The spinal nerves are numbered according to the vertebrae above which it exits the spinal canal. The 8 cervical spinal nerves are C1 through C8, the 12 thoracic spinal nerves are T1 through T12, the 5 lumbar spinal nerves are L1 through L5, and the 5 sacral spinal nerves are S1 through S5. There is 1 coccygeal nerve.

Glossary

• dorsal:  the back or posterior side of the body.
• kyphosis:  an abnormal forward curvature of the thoracic spine, also called hunchback.
• lordosis:  an abnormal curvature of the lumbar spine, also called swayback.
• paraplegia:  paralysis of both legs and lower body below the arms indicating an injury in the thoracic or lumbar spine.
• quadraplegia:  paralysis of both legs and arms indicating an injury to the cervical spine.
• scoliosis:  an abnormal side-to-side curvature of the spine.
• ventral: the front or anterior side of the body.

to be going to …

Оборот  to be going to  часто используется в повседневной речи   для выражения  запланированного действия , то есть когда мы  собираемся  что-то сделать. Этот оборот — один из  способов выражения будущего времени  в английском языке.

going to+ base form= future intention

• I am
• You are
• He is
• She is
• It is
• We are
• They are

do my homework

go to the school

going to

write a letter

do my exercise

Negative

• I am
• You are
• He is
• She is
• It is
• We are
• They are

do my homework

go to the school

not

going to

write a letter

do my exercise

Question form

• Am I
• Are you
• Is he
• Is she
• Is it
• Are we
• Are they

do my homework

?

go to the school

?

going to

write a letter

?

do my exercise

?

Examples

• I am going to write this exercise – я собираюсь написать это упражнение
• We are going to discuss this question – мы собираемся обсуждать этот вопрос
• She is not going to с all me – она не собирается звонить мне
• I am not going to the shop – я не собираюсь в магазин
• They are not going to have dinner – они не собираются обедать
• I was going to buy chocolate, but then decided to buy candies – я собирался купить шоколад, но потом решил купить леденцы
• He was going to enter the Institute but then changed his mind – он собирался поступить в институт, но потом передумал
• There is a hole in front of you! You are going to fall into it! – Перед тобой яма! Ты упадешь в нее!
• Look at those clouds! It is going to rain! – Посмотри на эти тучи! Пойдет дождь!
• It is 10 o’clock! I am going to be late! – Сейчас 10 часов! Я опоздаю!

Exercise 1 .   Write the sentences. Give answers about yourself.

• summer / are / this / you / going I Where I ?
• there / going / How / you I are I?
• take / going / to / What / you are ?
• with / are / you / Who / going / ?
• do / going / to / you / there / What I are I ?
• you / stay / going / to / are / Where I ?

Exercise 2 .   What have you decided to do this evening? Are you going to do these things?

watch TV, read a book, cook dinner, wash your hair, go to bed early

I’m going to watch TV или I'm not going to watch TV.

• Nola: I'm worried about my exams next week.
• Peter: Don't worry. You _________(not to fail). I'm sure you ________(to do) well. Of course, if you ________ (not to be) too nervous.
• Nola: Anyway, even if I ________ (to pass) them, my life ________ (to change). I ________ still (to go on) working in the same old job for the same old boss.
• Peter: I know you don't like him, but don't worry. He probably ________ (not to stay) much longer. He's not happy here. I expect he ________ (to leave) soon. I’ve heard he is going to work for Virgin Ailines, if he ________ (not to change) his mind.
• Nola: Well, let's think about something more pleasant. We ________ (to go away) after the exam?
• Peter: I ________ (to tell) you a good idea. We ________ (to spend) a few days at my aunt's cottage in Essex, where we went last summer. Remember?
• Nola: I remember the accident you had on the way.
• Peter: Oh, don't worry. I ________ (not to have) an accident this time. And the car (not to break down), either if I ________ (to have it serviced) at the nearest weekend.
• Nola: We ________ (to need) our sleeping bags. They're in the loft I expect they're damp and dirty. If we ________ (to take) them like this, we ________ (not to be able) to sleep in them.
• Peter: That's all right I ________ (to get them down) this evening, I (to wash) them in the morning, and then I ________ (to hang) them out in the garden to dry.
• Nola: Wonderful! So we ________ (to leave) as soon as the results ________ (to come out).